Genoese crossbowmen were some of the most
sought-after mercenaries in Europe for much of the Middle Ages. They earned a reputation
as fierce, reliable and effective warriors by defending their home republic and
by serving in many of Europe’s armies. When their emblem, the banner of
St. George, appeared on the horizon, many brave soldiers trembled and quite a few
commanders changed their strategy at the last moment. Their most famous battle as well as their
greatest defeat was the Battle of Crécy in 1346. Before diving deep into their origins, how they
fought and what made them effective, let me introduce you to today’s sponsor: Curiositystream,
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our channel! Now let’s jump back to the video. The Genoese crossbowmen originated in the
late 11th or early 12th century. Earlier, the Genoese had already relied on crossbowmen
occasionally, but in that period, Genoa decided to establish a regimented corps of selected
crossbowmen for certain tactical tasks. Within a few years, this corps developed
into an elite force that formed the core of the Genoese army. Why the Republic chose
crossbowmen of all things is not conclusive. The research situation is difficult. As the
Italian historian Fabio Romanoni explains, historical works on the Genoese crossbowmen are
extremely rare, although contemporaries held them in the same regard as other mercenaries such as
the famous Swiss mercenaries or the Brabançons. Nevertheless, there are quite a few
interesting things we do know about them. Not just anyone could become a Genoese
crossbowman. The requirements for recruitment were strict and only selected recruits were admitted.
Contrary to what the name suggests, they came from all over Liguria, some from even further away.
Romanoni has examined medieval primary sources from 1327 and found that most of the recruits
belonged to the lower strata of society. Most came from the outskirts of Genoa, Savona, Oltregiogo,
Montferrat, the Po Valley and even from Corsica. When there was need for new crossbowmen, the
Genoese war council elected two experienced men, usually noblemen, to organize and oversee
the recruitment. They evaluated the recruits according to physical aptitude, experience and
talent in handling weapons. Among other things, the recruits' resilience to mental pressure
and their eyesight were tested. Those selected then had to swear allegiance to the Republic
and provide a guarantor. The guarantor assured the recruit's loyalty and had to refund their
pay in case of desertion or insubordination. Once the oath had been taken and the guarantor
named, new recruits received their pay, which varied according to rank and duty. The term of
service was usually limited to less than a year, often only three months or half a year.
Once the contract was signed the recruits were sent to Genoa, where they learned
the art of fighting with the crossbow. Their weapon became popular in
Western Europe in the 11th century. Its origins go back much further, but for a long
time it was rarely used in most of Europe. But the military men of the time were fascinated by the
crossbow's penetrating power and efficiency. Also, it could be used with relatively little training
compared to longbows. Therefore, the crossbow rapidly spread across the continent. Of course,
there was also opposition, for example from Pope Urban II, who in 1193 prohibited the use of the
weapon against fellow Christians because it was considered unchivalrous due to its armor-piercing
effect. He thought of it as an early cheat code, so to speak. But as happens so often, practical
needs triumphed over moral norms. According to the expert for medieval military technology Kelly
DeVries, the crossbow was popular with almost all armies in Europe from the 12th century onward.
The Genoese crossbowmen used heavy crossbows made by the Balistai, the Genoese guild of crossbow
makers. Their build featured a stirrup and was loaded with the help of a belt hook that
the crossbowmen needed to wear at all times. In order to load, the shooter placed one foot
in the stirrup at the front end of the crossbow, bent his knees slightly, hooked the hook into the
string and then pulled it back by straightening himself. The retracted string was then hooked
into the so-called nut and the crossbow was ready to fire. The earliest European crossbows,
mostly used by Genoese crossbowmen in the 12th, 13th and early 14th centuries, had wooden bows.
According to DeVries these were gradually replaced by the stronger composite bows, made of wood,
animal sinews as well as horn plates that were glued together. In the 15th century bows made
of steel appeared perhaps first in Germany. Because these two later types had much more
draw weight, they could not be loaded with a belt hook. It required support tools such as
pulleys, goat’s foot levers or crank winches. In terms of equipment, we can say that
the Genoese crossbowmen weren’t uniform, and their gear evolved over time. In the
13th century the average soldier probably wore a light metal helmet, a breastplate, and
chain mail. Daggers and very short swords were popular as secondary weapons, and everyone
was required to carry at least 20 bolts. One crucial part of the equipment of the Genoese
crossbowmen were the so-called Pavises, which were man-sized shields that could be anchored in
the ground by means of spikes at the lower end. Presumably, these shields were carried and held
by a squire, who in some cases was accompanied by an additional infantryman. The crossbowmen
carrying these huge shields on their backs and simply turning around to load, as for example in
the game Total War, is considered very unlikely. The Genoese crossbowmen also fought
in defense of fortresses and on ships. For much of the 13th to 15th centuries, Genoese
ships were required to have a minimum number of crossbowmen on board. They played a
decisive role, for example, in the naval battles of Meloria in 1284 and Curzola in 1298 .
Organizationally, the crossbowmen were divided into groups, called "bandiere", which consisted of
twenty men each and were commanded by a sergeant. These could then be combined in
companies of a few hundred to a few thousand men under the high command
of a Genoese commander in chief. The Republic of Genoa tried to control the use of
its crossbowmen as best as it could. Technically, only the government could authorize the deployment
of its soldiers outside the republic's borders. The crossbowmen were forbidden to enter
the service of another lord on their own. Of course, this was not observed nearly
as strictly as the republic had wished, especially not by the condottieri,
the Italian mercenary captains. The first deployment of Genoese crossbowmen
outside Italy was probably in 1099, during the siege of Jerusalem in the First Crusade.
Under the Genoese admiral Guglielmo Embriaco, known as "Testadimaglio", the Hammerhead, they
were deployed against the mounted archers of the Mamluks. The first time Genoa provided crossbowmen
to another Italian city is documented in 1173 when the margravate of Gavi received an unknown number
of crossbowmen for defensive purposes. While we don't know much more about what happened there,
we do get some clues about how the crossbowmen fought in an engagement some twenty years later.
In 1192, during the Third Crusade, some Genoese crossbowmen received orders from Richard the
Lionheart himself, who was defending the city of Jaffa against Sultan Saladin's men. According to
the Italian historian Aldo Settia, he ordered the Pavise-bearers and spearmen to form a "rampart of
shields and spears". From this safe position, the crossbowmen, who formed two lines and alternated
loading and firing, beat back the attackers. Whether the Genoese fought like this regularly
is unclear. We do know for sure that they took cover behind the pavise shields to load, which
took them about ten seconds with the belt hook. There is also some evidence that
they fought in teams of three, that is, a squire holding the shield and two
crossbowmen, of which one was reloading while the other was taking a shot. While the shields
were indispensable as cover, they also made quick movement on the battlefield very cumbersome.
In general, the tactical deployment of the crossbowmen in battle had to be well-considered.
The basic requirements for them to fight efficiently were twofold. They needed dry
and solid ground and a clear field of fire. This implies that crossbowmen could be positioned
either in front of the rest of the infantry, on the flanks or on a hill. Crossbows could be shot
both in an arch or directly at the target. The latter mode of fire was way more precise, but it
required a clear line of fire. Therefore, it was quite common that crossbowmen opened the battle by
shooting a few volleys, but then allowed the melee troops to pass through their lines, and finally
moved to the flanks to strike again later on. While the Genoese served mainly in the armies
of city-states of northern Italy at first, they soon also entered foreign service. They served in
particularly large numbers in France during the Hundred Years' War. It was there, in 1346,
that they fought their most famous battle, the Battle of Crécy. In the summer of that
year, Edward III of England attacked France from three sides to press his claims to the
French throne. He himself landed in Normandy on July 12 with an army of 7’000-15’000
men and marched plundering towards Paris. Philip VI of France gathered an army as quickly
as he could and then stuck to the heels of the English as they turned north near Poissy.
After initial engagements at the Somme River, where the French in vain tried to stop the
English, Edward deployed his army in a strong position near Crécy and awaited the French attack.
According to the historian Clifford J. Rogers, Philip's army was two to three times larger
and consisted of about 8,000 men-at-arms 16-20,000 ordinary infantrymen and 2-6,000 Genoese
crossbowmen. The latter were to play a decisive role in the upcoming battle. Unfortunately, we
know very little about them except for the fact that their leaders, Carlo Grimaldi and Aitone
Doria who both belonged to leading families of Genoa, had both fallen from grace in Genoa
and served as mercenaries for that reason. Their two companies, which as far as we
know never fought together before Crécy, had at that point been in French service for
nine years. Grimaldi joined the French campaign after his galleys had entered the port of Rouen on
August 20. When Doria's men joined in is unclear. Kelly DeVries speculates that they anchored
their ships in the outlet of the Somme and met the army near Abbeville.
When Philip ordered his men to march on the morning of August 26, he did not know
exactly what to expect. At the head of the long column, alongside the cavalry, marched the Genoese
crossbowmen. This was unusual, because the front was normally formed by the knights. According
to DeVries, there are barely any other examples in which archers or crossbowmen marched in the
vanguard of medieval armies. What makes this even more puzzling is that the Genoese equipment was
transported at the rear of the convoy - they had their crossbows with them, but the Pavises and
probably some of their armor was out of reach. According to the historian Christian Teutsch
the French column was drawn-out over 12 miles, when the vanguard spotted the English
army. Accordingly, the king wanted to let his men catch up before the attack. But
the knights and nobles who were marching with him convinced him not to wait. Shortly after
midday there was a brief but intense rainstorm, which led historians to speculate about whether
the Genoese crossbows were rendered useless because of the wet strings. Usually, this is
contrasted with the English longbowmen who were able to de-string their bows quickly. However,
DeVries thinks this argument makes no sense as the crossbowstrings were quite resistant to
rain due to the materials they were made of. Also, as Teutsch mentions, the attack began
only some hours later, in late afternoon. The first to advance were the crossbowmen.
They were facing the English longbowmen, who outnumbered them significantly, had a much
higher rate of fire and a slightly higher range. This was even amplified by the fact that
the English army held the high ground. The Genoese advanced, but after firing a few
rounds, they were hit by a hail of English arrows. Without their Pavises, and with only light armor
and little ammunition, there was no way they could put up with this. They turned to flight very
quickly. The Count of Alençon and his horsemen, who formed the second line, thought
the Genoese were cowards or worse, had betrayed the French. He could not
understand their quick flight from battle. Apparently, as DeVries underlines, neither
the Genoese crossbowmen nor the French knights had fought longbowmen before. Alençon was
furious and ordered his men to advance and ride down the crossbowmen. However, when they
came within range of the English, the knights became themselves acquainted with the devastating
force of the English longbow. The confusion caused by the clash of the cavalry with their own
crossbowmen made the attackers an easy target, so that the English archers combined with three
bombards wreaked havoc in the French lines. Despite all this, the French cavalry
charged against the English army again and again almost until midnight. Their charges,
however, were hampered by a couple of factors: Firstly, the ground was muddy because of a quick
and heavy downpour in the afternoon and, secondly, they had to advance uphill through English
pitfalls and field fortifications. All the while, the English arrows hailed down on the French
knights ceaselessly. Despite these adverse circumstances a total of 15 waves of French
cavalry advanced against the English lines. Philip reportedly retreated only after two horses were
killed under him and he was left no other choice than to retreat. Hours after he had abandoned
the battle, militiamen continued to arrive on the battlefield - and with them, way too late,
the futile equipment of the Genoese crossbowmen. Most historians estimate the French
casualties at about 15,000; those of the English were negligible - two knights, forty
men-at-arms, and a few archers and spearmen. How many of the Genoese lost their life on the
field of Crécy is unknown and there is no way to tell. But it must have been many. Riddled with
English arrows, run over by their own cavalry and then caught between the fronts, a large
part of them must have been wiped out. The Battle of Crécy is one of the most
discussed events of the Hundred Years War. It is considered the battle in which the
English longbow demonstrated its superior effectiveness - which is, of course,
disputed. Despite this heavy defeat, the Genoese crossbowmen remained some of the
most sought-after mercenaries for quite a while. Only when the crossbow was gradually replaced
by firearms and developed into a mere hunting weapon, did the Genoese crossbowmen also
disappear from the battlefields of Europe.
