From the ruins of the former settlements of the Inca and Tiahuanaco cultures, on lake Titicaca, the Cayahualla priests worship Tata Inti, the Sun God. At dawn, to bring good luck, they burn amulets and llama foetuses, and the smoke rises, carrying the invocation to Viracocha, who created the world from this Island of the Sun. This enigmatic God ordered men to go forth and multiply. He then disappeared into the west, and was never seen again. According to the eminent archaeologist, Federico Kauffmann Doig, the figure worshipped at the Gate of the Sun in Tiahuanaco represents Viracocha, the creator of the Andean world, who is surrounded by mythical beings with condor heads. The colossal monoliths in Tiahuanaco seem to want to speak to us of the secrets which this mysterious culture of Titicaca still hides. Some writers have even described them as gods from other planets, and have come up with elaborate theories. But what is certainly true is that these stone sculptures continue to astound even the most distinguished archaeologists and specialists. The Tiahuanaco culture appeared in about the fourth century AD, on the Bolivian plateau, just a few kilometres from the shores of Lake Titicaca. From there, it spread south, where it merged with the Huari, heirs to a different tradition the Paracas-Nasca culture. Titicaca is the largest lake in South America, and one of the highest in the world. It lies at 3,820 metres above sea level, and covers 9,000 square kilometres: about 230 kilometres long by almost 100 wide, and with a maximum depth of 457 m. The Tiahuanaco culture went through a number of different phases: the early phase; the classical age; and the post-Tiahuanaco culture. It was a society profoundly marked by its religious beliefs. The inhabitants of the Island of the Sun to this day retain reminders of this religion in the liturgy of their rituals. Before undertaking any action, they call upon their gods, especially Pachamama, the Earth Goddess. On the islands of the Sun and Moon, we find numerous ruins of Tiahuanaco origin, and which were later occupied by the Incas. These are sacred places for the peoples of the Andes. All around, their offerings can be seen, in the shape of piles of stones looking towards the snow-capped peaks, believed to be the home of the gods. The ancient mystical observatories are still used by the shaman in their ceremonies of invocation and meditation. The monumental city of Tiahuanaco was built during the classical age. The famous Barbado or Kontiki monolith presides over the semi-subterranean temple. Were the builders of this colossal city gods or giants? The transport of the enormous stones, and the manner in which they are expertly fitted together, have given rise to numerous theories. But none of these is universally accepted, and Tiahuanaco remains an enigma. Was there a flood at Titicaca? According to legend, the earth was inhabited by giants called Chullpas, who had become powerful and wise. But their culture degenerated into violence. And so, the god Viracocha punished them by sending a devastating flood, killing them all. The first land to emerge from the waters was the Island of the Sun, and there Viracocha created Manco Capac and Mama Oglio, the first human couple, and gave them a sceptre of gold. Manco Capac threw it with all his strength, and where it fell, that is where the Inca Empire was born. The majority of the coast of Peru is dry desert land. Vast expanses of dunes bury everything in their relentless advance. The air becomes grey and asphyxiating, visibility reduced to almost nil. Nonetheless, this inhospitable land was the birth place of great civilisations, who constructed irrigation channels, and created gardens in the desert. With their advanced techniques, they developed agricultural societies capable of supporting large numbers of inhabitants. This is the case of the Chimú culture which, from 1000 to 1470 AD, ruled over 700 kilometres of coast, and built cities like this one, Chanchán, perhaps the largest city in the world at the time, with around 100,000 inhabitants. It covers an area of 20 square kilometres, and is composed of nine distinct areas, separated by trapezoidal walls from six to nine metres high. Each one corresponded to a different Chimu monarch. A network of passages led from these districts of the city to the great ceremonial square. All the buildings are of clay, the material used by all the cultures of the Peruvian desert. Around the ceremonial altars, the walls were decorated with bas-reliefs which represented fishing nets. Chanchán lived in close contact with the sea. Fishing was a major part of the daily lives of its inhabitants. Canvases cover the excavation, protecting it from the climatological phenomenon “El Niño”. There is virtually no rain in this region, but during the past century a number of storms have destroyed and disfigured the city’s fragile walls. It was a very hierarchical society. Power was held by the Great Chimú. Below him were the chiefs, who governed the different valleys. Then came the professionals and the tax collectors, who lived in the cities, and finally the peasants, farmers and fishermen. This culture was highly skilled in the working of gold, and many objects made of this metal have been discovered. The majority of these are clearly of a religious nature. The Chimú worshipped the moon and the sun, as well as the mummies of their monarchs, which they would remove from their tombs on special occasions. The masks with blind eyes were funeral masks, and were placed on the faces of the mummies. Their pottery has also provided many valuable clues about the daily lives of the Chimú. It is decorated with depictions of many of their habits and customs like this pot, which shows a fisherman with his “cattail horse”. Still today, the fishermen along the coast of northern Peru use these boats, called “cattail horses”, to work the fishing grounds close to the shore. The cattail is a type of reed or bulrush which grows in the marshlands. Once it is cut and dried in the sun, it becomes tough and flexible, very resistant, and waterproof. At dawn, the fishermen set out to sea, expertly maintaining their balance as they ride the waves, using the most ancient of all surfing techniques. The anthropomorphic face of the ‘Slitter of Men’s Throats’, at the Tomb, or ‘Huaca’ of the Moon, introduces us to the Moche culture, which flourished along these same coastal valleys, before the Chimú empire, from 200 BC to 700 AD. From here we can see the Tomb of the Sun. Between these two pyramids lay the capital of the Moche empire. Inside the Tomb of the Moon we can see the different levels that have been excavated. Each one corresponds to a different ruler, who, when he died, was buried along with all his belongings, including his wives and servants. Once they had been buried, they were sealed in with adobe bricks, and on top of these the temple of the new ruler was built. Six different levels have been discovered, to which access was gained by means of a ramp. Moche, or Mochica society was also very hierarchical and there was clearly specialisation of labour. They appear to have instituted a system of tribute at work, called ‘mita’. Some writers define it as a theocratic society, while others speak of a secular society. We know that they worshipped the moon, and the deity Ai-Apaec, a fierce god, the supreme power, and creator of the world, who demanded human sacrifice Apparently, the victims were thrown from the summit of the White Mountain, which rises up behind the tomb. There, 42 bodies of sacrificed warriors have been found. Close by the Tomb of the Moon stands the Tomb, or ‘Huaca’ of the Sorcerer. In Peru, the word ‘huaca’ is used to describe any archaeological site, and the things found there. The most important of these finds are the polychromatic friezes which have been unearthed, like this one, showing a line of naked prisoners, on their way to be castrated, moving towards the figure of the ‘Slitter of Throats’ here in the form of a spider, who holds a tumi, or ceremonial knife, in his hand. Some archaeologists believe this to be a representation of the god Ai-Apaec. On the walls of the different platforms, beneath the relief drawings, we can see bones and human remains. They are believed to belong to workers who were condemned to death by being immured in the walls. Many more mummies have been found in Peru than in any other country in the world. Its ancient civilisations had very large populations. People were buried with all their possessions, because they believed that life continued after death. The mummification processes varied according to the era and the region. In the case of the cultures along the coast, the main factor in the preservation of the bodies was simply the climate. The exceptionally dry climate of the Peruvian desert has meant the mummified bodies have remained well preserved right down to the present day. The heads of mummies, stolen when the ancient tombs were robbed and defiled, occupy an important place on the tables of power of the sorcerers and healers. In the dark of night, and presided over by the shaman, rituals are held, at which they ingest the ‘San Pedro’, a cactus which contains a powerful alkali with relaxant and hallucinatory properties – mescaline, a mind-altering substance which induces a profound state of trance. The San Pedro is cooked for a minimum of eight hours, and the results of this cooking ingested through the nose. The number of sniffs or doses is decided by the shaman. The swords with which they protect themselves from the disturbing spirits are stuck into the ground, to guard the table. The San Pedro was present in the majority of Pre-Inca cultures. Its native name is huachuma. According to the investigator Antonio Escohotado, the name ‘San Pedro’ can be explained by the fact that Saint Peter was the holder of the keys to heaven, and this plant is the ‘key’ which opens the door to another world. In the pottery of the Moche, Chimú, Paraca and other cultures, we can see the cactus, represented in the shape of a star, like the cut they make into the San Pedro, in order to get at the part which contains the greatest amount of mescaline. The cactus can be bought in the sorcerers’ markets, in the north of the country, along with an endless number of potions and cures prepared by the healers. The origins of the recipes of these are lost in the depths of time. You can also buy the liturgical objects necessary for each ritual, like the skulls of mummies, which confer the greatest power to the ceremonial tables. The archaeological treasures stolen by the grave-robbers are vital if the shamans are to summon up the power necessary to invoke their gods. They also drink the liquid obtained from cooking the San Pedro. The effect is slower, and the required dose larger. Though people in the north of Peru are very religious, they alternate the Christian faith with their beliefs in sorcery and healing. They live in an animist world, in which misfortune and bad luck are the result of spells and curses. Continuing on our journey through the Pre-Inca cultures, we are flying over the mysterious ‘Pampa del Ingenio’. The first person to fly over this land was the American scientist Paul Kosok, in 1939 He discovered enigmatic lines stretching out into the distance, and pointing towards where the sun sets. This could not be a natural phenomenon, these lines must have been drawn and etched into the pampa by the hand of man. He believed it to be the largest book of astronomy in the world. And there were not just lines, but also enormous drawings which could only be seen from the air, and at a considerable height. The German mathematician María Reiche continued the investigations. She spent 40 years of her life studying the lines and drawings. In effect, many of them coincided with solar solstices and the exact place where the moon rises. But, according to this investigator, these lines across the pampas were made during the first millenium of our era, by the Nasca and Paraca peoples. In her studies, she makes the following observation: “How and why were they made, by a supposedly primitive culture, who could not fly? They must have first planned and drawn them on a smaller scale. But how they were then able to place them precisely, and in the right direction remains a mystery which will take many years to solve.”. “We have before us one of the most important tasks in the study of our history, which will help us understood the peoples of the past, and their way of thinking.”. The fragile lines have been conserved due to the almost total lack of rainfall. But there are parts where car tracks have destroyed them, and the Pan-American highway cuts right across this plain. The collection of over 16,000 skulls in the Archaeological museum in Lima makes it possible to study the pathology of these ancient cultures. These Paraca and Nasca skulls were subjected to a traumatic deformation, apparently simply for aesthetic reasons. A long, thin skull was a symbol of the upper class. The deformations were achieved by means of two splints, one at the frontal bone, and one at the occipital bone. Then, increasing pressure was applied and, over the years, this gave a flat forehead and a high cranial vault. Many cultures, both before and after the Paracas, even the Incas, carried out brain surgery, using rudimentary surgical instruments made of obsidian. The only anaesthetic used during these trepanning operations were the hallucinatory effects of chicha. Normally, they operated on fractures and blows to the skull received in battle, and, to a lesser extent, migraines and other pathologies. The percentage of patients who recovered following the operation was very small. In these samples, we can clearly see how the bone grew in those who survived the operation. It is also evident which are those who did not survive. The basic weapons of these peoples were clubs and maces, striated to cause even greater injury. Blows were mainly directed at the head of the enemy, and that is why skull fractures, and the subsequent trepanning to treat them, were so common. Battles were frequent and cruel in these ancient civilisations. One proof of this is given to us by the Sechín culture, which developed around 1,500 years BC, in what is now the coastal province of Casma. The stele which surround a rectangular stone building tell us of a battle, in which victors and vanquished are depicted in a remarkable bas-relief technique. Mutilations of limbs, faces of dead warriors with closed eyes, blood streaming from their heads, back bones… the Sechín had surprisingly detailed knowledge of the human body. This stela represents the eyes of the defeated. On another, we see intestines, parts of a pelvis, bones. Later than the Sechín, the Chavín de Huantar civilisation arose and flourished from 1,000 BC to 300 AD. It was the most influential in Peru. At the Raymondi stele, one of the most important finds from this period, we see the anthropomorphic figure of their god of creation, with feline and bird-like features. In each hand it holds a staff, the symbol of the power of the Andes. In every corner of Peru, we find pyramids and tombs. The country is one enormous archaeological treasure, and experts estimate that only about 15% has been discovered. Every day, gangs of ‘huaqueros’, or grave robbers, defile a little more of this world cultural heritage. Each of the cavities we can see in these images corresponds to an ancient tomb desecrated. It looks like a moon landscape. The majority of ancient cultures buried their dead with everything they possessed. Alongside the burial site of an impoverished peasant may well lie that of a powerful landowner who, on his journey into the after-life, took with him all his gold, turquoise and other precious objects, and it is these which are sought after by collectors all around the world. They grave robbers are poor. They steal out of necessity, running the risk of being arrested. The minimum sentence for raiding an archaeological site is 10 years imprisonment. The sacred site of Sipan stands on a former Mochica cemetery. Often, when a new grave is dug, they find a mummy, with its treasures of pottery and decorative objects. Here is buried the first grave robber to enter the funeral pyramid of the Lord of Sipan, the most important archaeological find in America in recent decades. His name was Ernil Bernal. A fellow huaquero, who entered the pyramid with him tells us the story. Fortunately, they did not reach the chamber of the Lord of Sipan, but they did destroy that of the priest. Entire generations of grave robbers have, since the arrival of the Spanish, systematically destroyed the archaeological remains of Peru. Every day, gangs unearth and ransack yet more ancient treasures, which they then sell to the illegal dealers in antiquities –a few miserable dollars, but enough to feed their families. These objects are made of gold, and come from the tomb of the Lord of Sipan. The police seized them from the grave robber Ernil Bernal, and they provided the clue for the archaelogist Walter Alva to discover this extraordinary Moche mausoleum. Hundreds of pyramids remain to be excavated. They look like hills, due to the effects of the rain which, though scarce deforms them, causing them to blend into the natural landscape. This is the ‘Huaca Rajada’, the ‘Cracked Tomb’, as the burial complex of the Lord of Sipan is popularly know. Excavations are still going on at this extraordinary find. It is the first time that the burial site of an important Moche nobleman has been discovered intact. This complete series of different, interrelated elements, 1,700 years old, represents a decisive advance in the study of this culture. Buried in a wooden coffin, the first to be discovered in America, the Lord of Sipan lies surrounded by enormous quantities of gold and silver objects. In the replica which occupies the place of the original coffin, we can see these ornaments, a reflection of his status as governor. His body is conserved in the Bruning Museum, in Lambayeque. He was buried along with his three wives, a warrior, a priest and a child. And further up, in a corner, the guardian, his feet cut off, to symbolically prevent him from escaping. He was a boy of around nine years old who, because he was pure, would be able to lead his master into the after-life. Hundreds of pottery vessels, filled with the food they would need in the other world. Everyone considered it an honour to be buried alongside the great Lord. His personal counsellor was the last to be buried. Up to now, twelve tombs have been found at this one burial complex. The most important ones are those of the Lord of Sipan, that of the previous governor, who they called the Old Lord, and that of the priest who, in Moche society, was second in the hierarchical system, immediately below the governor. Work is carried out meticulously, photographing each new discovery, noting down even the smallest details, which could provide information. It is a complex puzzle, in which each piece must be fitted into its correct place, in order to reconstruct the history of the civilisation which flourished here almost two thousand years ago. Even the adobe bricks, which the grave robbers normally destroy as they ransack, are here classified by groups. People would donate them for the construction of the pyramid, and each family marked them with their own stamp. All the pieces are duly registered. Every night, under cover of darkness, the robbers continue to find treasures, raiding the tombs of the Moche, Chimu, Chancay, Paracas, Nasca… The treasures they unearth are bought for pitiful sums by unscrupulous merchants, and sold on the black market. With their rods, they search the ground. They are very experienced, and by sense of touch they know what lies beneath. But, on many occasions, they break and destroy objects of incalculable value. The mummies are pulled out in pieces, and so all the information they could give is lost, and the cloths and funeral canopies are destroyed and left abandoned in the sand. This is a Chancay tomb. We are one hour from Lima, along the Panamerican highway. The entire coastal region is like an enormous archaeological treasure, with hundreds of thousands of burial sites. The police cannot hope to guard all this territory, and the bands of ransackers are always able to find a way to escape unnoticed. In the course of a year, many grave robbers die, buried alive. At times, the fragile walls of the shafts they dig collapse, entombing them. The mummified bodies were wrapped in cloth decorated with designs. The most interesting are those of the Paracas. This culture, which dates from the first centuries of our era, possessed surprisingly sophisticated textile manufacturing skills. We are leaving the coast and heading east, to discover the Chachapoya culture. Little by little, the valleys become covered in vegetation. These ‘White Indians’, as they are also known, lived in bizarre places. We can see the ancient walls of their settlements along the cliffs and crags, totally inaccessible. Without a doubt, Kuelap is the most astonishing of all the Chachapoya cities. Standing at a height of 3,000 metres, it was an impregnable fortress, the citadel in the clouds! The city walls are 600 metres long, and between 10 and 20 metres high. They are built of blocks of limestone weighing up to three tonnes. Kuelap is rectangular in shape, and at one side looks down into a chasm almost 1,000 metres deep. The city covers an area of 60,000 square metres. The entrances are build on steep slopes, and are shaped like funnels, becoming increasingly narrow, until only person can pass at a time. The ‘Lords of the Abysm’ were conquered by the Incas in 1470. But the invading army did not succeed in entering Kuelap by force of arms. Tupac Yupanqui cut off supplies of food and water, and after a siege lasting months, the Chachapoyas had no option but to surrender. Within the walls lies a city much like any other, with 420 circular–shaped houses, with conical, pointed roofs of straw. In the construction of Kuelap, 25 million cubic metres of stone blocks were used, three times as much as in the pyramid of Keops, in Egypt. It is not known with certainty when it was built. Some specialists date it to 900 BC. But, how were they able to carry out this colossal construction work, using the means we presume they had at that time? For now, this is yet another secret, jealously guarded by Peru. The archaeological excavations that are being carried out have so far not unravelled the mystery of this strange mountain civilisation. But work continues. The study of the bodies, and the pottery, will be vital in understanding the Chachapoyas. One of the first descriptions we have of them comes from the chronicler of the Indies, Cieza de León, who was impressed by the fact they were the whitest, and most beautiful of all the tribes he had seen. Some investigators believe that these ‘White Indians’ were of European origin basing their argument on supposed cultural influences from the old continent in the remains they have so far found in the jungle. These risky theories call into question the official history, as they would mean that a group of Europeans reached America well before Columbus. Crossing the pampas and regions of thick vegetation, we come to the most hidden of the Chachapoya settlements, such as the Laguna de los Cóndores (The Lake of the Condors), ajía, or Petaca, in the Utcumbamba valley the cliffs where the dead live! On the sacred mountain of La Petaca, there are over one hundred tombs in which they laid to rest their mummified dead. It is not known how they were able to construct them high up on the sheer rock face. It is presumed they had some type of scaffolding, which they would destroy once the mummy had been deposited in the funeral chamber, so that no one could disturb its eternal sleep. But, up to now, no evidence has been found to prove that this was indeed the case. Incredible though it may seem, the grave robber have managed to reach even here. These tombs might have provided vital information which could help us understand this culture – but that information has been destroyed. Nonetheless, on the Lake of the Condors better conserved burial sites are now being found. Under the supervision of the archaeologist Sonia Guillén, and with the valuable support of the Spanish priest Diego Isidoro, dozens of funeral bundles have been unearthed and taken to the museum in the city of Leimebamba. The Chachapoya mummies are the product of a relatively sophisticated process. Their insides were removed, and seals then placed in the vagina and anus. The mouth was filled with cotton, to prevent the face from collapsing. They were then wrapped in various layers of cloth, the outermost one of which was decorated with a schematic drawing of the facial features of the deceased. Thanks to this process, and the cold, dry atmosphere of the mountain-side tombs in which they were placed, they are extraordinarily well conserved. Once complete, these funeral bundles were put into wooden containers, rather like coffins. Little by little, the mummies of the Lake of the Condors are providing specialists with information. Possibly, within a few years, many of the mysteries of the “White Indians” will be revealed. Although the secrets they hide are many, perhaps one day we will know the meanings behind the silently staring faces of the sarcophaguses of Karajía, in which the Chachapoya mummies were laid to rest. How and why were they placed here?. We do not, for the time being, have the answer. We must content ourselves with the emotion of simply seeing them, and knowing that in this world, there are still many mysteries that remain to be discovered. And finally, it was the time of the Incas! Their Empire, the Tahuantinsuyo, extended from what is now Ecuador, to Argentina and Chile, absorbing all previous cultures. They became the masters of the Andes. They built astonishing cities, like the sacred Machupichu, abandoned since the arrival of the Spanish. It is not known with certainty who lived there, but according to legend, it was inhabited by holy virgins and supreme priests who were sorcerers from the other world, and who, at Intiguatana, their astronomical observatory, were capable of tying down the great Inti, the supreme Sun God.
