French Creek Heritage Event 2018 "Overview of the Pontiac Indian Uprising"

we're going to continue on with our next speaker which is Timothy he's an author and historian mr. TARDIS is a historical writer and consultant who lives in Grand Rapids Michigan he's a graduate of Michigan State University and has retired with over 27 years with the Grand Rapids Police Department mr. toddy has authored and co-authored nine books three of which have won major awards and he has recently signed a contract with a New York publisher to go author an illustrated history of Rogers Rangers along with his longtime friend historical artist and author Gary Zavala since college he has been active in historical reenacting and black powder shooting he worked as a consultant and reenact or extra on the 1991 movie the last of the Mohicans and as a consultant and re-enactor coordinator for the 1998 History Channel series frontier legends of the Old Northwest he has coordinated and led historical staff rides for the US Army's elite 10th Mountain Division in the Connecticut National Guard's 101st Infantry Regiment please give a welcome to Timothy toddy [Applause] thank you everyone I'm very honored to be able to speak to you today I hope you're gonna enjoy my presentation and let's hope that it works I have quite a few images here to share with you along with my talk you heard if you're here last time you heard him talk about the Robert Griffin weekend coming up in lines Ville in a few weeks if you're not familiar with Griff's work you'll see a lot of it in my slides that I use here today so you'll go away from here knowing who he is if nothing else the talk I'm gonna give is based heavily on a book that I co-wrote with my buddy dr. Todd Harborne about the Pontiac uprising and we kind of tried to look at it for more of a military point of view because other people had covered the Indians side and so on so if it's a seems a little bit slanted to you from that viewpoint it's because that's the way we planned in order to fit into the market with the other Pontiac works Pontiacs uprising has not received the amount of attention that it deserves for its important place in our American history not even an authentic portrait of Pontiac is known to exist this one by Robert Griffin is based on the best information available but even it is speculative with the fall of Montreal in 1760 the French and Indian War was essentially over in North America although fighting would continue in other theaters for another three years the intrepid Ranger major Robert Rogers was chosen to lead the first British expedition into the West to take possession of the French forts and the other territories that Britain had won along the way Rogers reported that he met with a then relatively unknown Ottawa chief named Pontiac he arrived at Detroit at the end of November and took possession of the fort without incident he dispatched smaller parties to take forts Miami and Wyatt and on and then set out for Fort Mitchell Mackinac himself however bad weather forced him to turn back and the occupation of the remaining forts had to wait until the following year over the next two years the British commander in America General Jeffery Amherst found himself under tremendous pressure to economize and reduce troop levels after a very costly war he is often looked on as one of the villains of the conflict but I feel that much of that reputation is undeserved he must surely bear some of the blame for the deterioration of relations with the Indians but much what happened was beyond his control and in spite of his best efforts to prevent it regardless of the reasons by late 1762 relations with the Indians on the front here we're at a boiling point while Pontiac is generally credited with being a mastermind of the coming uprising the unrest was very widespread a Delaware Indian named nee Olin also called the Prophet had been exhorting the Indians to reject the British and return to their traditional native way of life however Nolan was not quite so emphatic about the Indians rejecting the French I'm June 16th 1761 a full two years before the outbreak of hostilities kept in Donald camp Bell the commander at Detroit wrote to Colonel Henry bouquet that the Six Nations have sent deputies and large belts of wampum to all the Indians from the Bay of Gaspee to the Illinois inviting them to take up the hatchet against the English the scheme laid is that the Indians in general shall at what one time cut off all communication and stop the roads at Niagara Fort Pitt and here and at the same time seize upon all the goods and horses of the traders at Sandusky the Indians were angry about reduced presence from the British restrictive trade policies and often not even being able to get enough powder and ball to hunt to support their families another factor was the disrespect shown them either real or perceived arrogance by many British officers and officials and note that I said real or perceived it wasn't always all the way it appeared the Indians were also upset by increasing white encroachment on their lands in spite of the official British policies prohibiting any settlement beyond the Allegheny and Appalachian Mountains in addition the Indians were holding on to the hope that the French would send an army from Fort de chartres down onto Mississippi to help them take back their territory and this hope was somewhat encouraged by the French even though if it wasn't official they didn't doesn't necessarily deny it while many of the complaints were undoubtedly justified some of the British officers and officials did try to understand and generally genuinely cared about the Indians among them were Sir William Johnson captain Kemp Bell at Detroit and major Robert Rogers still it is clear that the British failed to properly heed many of the signs of impending trouble for example in March of 1763 ensign Robert Holmes commander at Fort Miami wrote to major Henry gladwyn who was uncommon died at Detroit that friendly Indians had told him we were not to let this built be known until it arrived that we ought not and then we were to all rise and put the English to death all about this place and those at other places major glad one of the 80th or gages Light Infantry Regiment would be one of the heroes of the uprising he was a dedicated officer who had served with distinction during the French and Indian War his competence and firmness were among the primary reasons that Detroit was able to hold out during the many months of its siege hostilities bent began out in the West at Fort Detroit when on May 1st 1763 Pontiac and a band of warriors visited the fort under the pretense of meeting with gladwyn most of them performed a ceremonial dance in front of captain camp Belle's quarters well a few milled around the inside of the fort gathering intelligence when a dance was over Pontiac told gladwyn that he would return again in a few days with more of his followers on may 2nd a party under Captain Charles Robertson left Fort Detroit in a bath in order to take soundings in the st. Clair River they were accompanied by English adventurer Sir Robert de leurs in a canoe when the party reached the mouth of Lake Huron they saw the banks lined with three or four hundred Indians Davers put into Shore at the Indians request and was immediately taken captive when Robertson's bath all came up Davers was able to relay to them to keep going and pretend they didn't suspect anything the Indians opened fire on a battle and then rushed aboard and captured it robertson Davers and two sailors were killed and the rest of the party was taken captive one of the captives a young civilian named John Rutherford eventually escaped and later wrote a very fascinating narrative of his experiences on may 5th Pontiac held a large council and it was decided to attack the fort on may 7th the plan was for Pontiac and sixty trusted warriors to enter the fort under the pretext of meeting with gladwyn carrying weapons under their blankets on a given signal the Indians would fall upon the garrison taking care not to harm every any of the local French habitants the Wyandots and Potawatomi --zz would encircle a fort cutting off any British reinforcements and taking care of any English on the outside of the stockade somehow a word of this plot leaked to gladwyn we don't know exactly how this happened but one of the most likely explanations is that it was through a young French woman anjali coior whose father Antoine was one of the prominent French traders at Detroit Angelique was in love with and eventually married the British trader James Stirling regardless of how word reached gladwyn when Pontiac arrived he found a British garrison of about a hundred and thirty men on full alert gladwyn received him politely and a to talk for a while when the time came for Pontiac to turn over the wampum belt that he held as a signal to begin the attack he decided not to go through with the plot frustrated and angry that their plan had been discovered the Indians left the fort in Pontiac sent messengers to the other tribes encouraging them to attack the smaller forts in their areas here the story becomes rather complex many events are going on at different places at the same time so to keep it simple I'm now going to talk about the fall of the lesser forts and then come back later to talk about the sieges of Fort Detroit in Fort Pitt as well as some of the other important Eastern activities fort Sandusky in Sandusky Ohio was the first of the smaller posts to fall the 15-man garrison was commanded by ensign Christopher Pauley on May 16th some local Indians accompanied by Ottawa and Wyandotte warriors from Detroit came to talk Paulie was well-liked by the Indians and he admitted them to the fort's black house he was suddenly seized and the rest of the garrison was killed Paulie was taken to Detroit and held an Indian camps and eventually escaped to the fort on July 4th the 17 man garrison of Fort Saint Joseph at Niles Michigan was commanded by ensign Francis slosher he was warned of potential Indian trouble by a local Frenchman Louis savelii he first disregarded it unfortunately then on May 25th a group of Potawatomi came to talk to him by this time he was alarmed and paying attention I mean he went to the barracks to alert his men but when he arrived he found the Indians already in control he was quickly taken prisoner himself and all but three of his men were killed the survivors were taken to Detroit where on June 14th gladwyn was able to exchange them for two Indian prisoners fort miami which is now fort wayne indiana was commanded by ensign robert holmes of the royal American regiment Holmes was a former lieutenant in Rogers Rangers who had proven himself to be an able officer during the French and Indian War he had been warned of the trouble at Detroit by visiting Frenchmen as I mentioned earlier and he kept his 15 man garrison on alert on May 25th three of his men were captured outside the fort then on the 27th before he even knew their capture his Indian mistress came to him and asked him to treat a sick Indian woman he accompanied her to a cabin about 300 yards from the fort and as they approached Holmes was suddenly shot dead two Frenchmen then brought a captured English prisoner to the fort and ordered him to tell the remaining soldiers that if they did not surrender they would all be killed after a brief discussion the garrison surrendered all of four of the men were taken to Detroit and the fate of the rest of them is not known for none was a small post on the Wabash River near West Lafayette Indiana the 19 man garrison was commanded by Lieutenant Edward Jenkins Jenkins was seized when he went outside to the polls to talk with local Weah and Kickapoo Indians and the rest of his men quickly surrendered they had enjoyed inna Keable relations with the Indians and no one was harmed they were taken to Fort de chartres and then eventually down to mobile I am a bit Mobile Alabama Fort Mitchell of Mackinac located at the Straits of Mackinac where Lake Huron and Michigan meet was the largest British post west of Detroit it was of extreme importance both as a military outpost and as a major fur trade center Mitchell Mackinac was commanded by Captain George Etherington of the Royal American regiment although a generally competent officer he failed to heed warnings of possible trouble he had been advised of impending danger by several people including the famous French partisan Charles de Langlade and the British trader Alexander Henry Hetherington arrogantly threatened to send the next person who should bring a story of same kind a prisoner to Detroit he is not exactly attuned to the danger that he was faced with On June 2nd some four to six hundred the Ghibli Indians under magic chaos in Miniver vana gathered at the fort for a begad away game against some some visiting socks but get away of course is what we know today is lacrosse in spite of the early warnings the garrison gathered to watch the game without taking any special precautions the Indians plan was one of the most ingenious of all those used to capture the Western British poles the Indian women watching the game had weapons hidden under their blankets at a pre-arranged point the players tossed the ball over the wall into the fort seemingly by accident as they ran after it they took the weapons that the women had concealed and fell upon the unsuspecting garrison in minutes twenty-one of the thirty-five British soldiers lay dead in one civilian trader was also killed none of the French habitants were harmed ironically the local Ottawa were furious at the ahjumma for not including them in the plan Langlade then a British a loyal British subject was made caretaker of the fort while Etherington and the other prisoners were taken to the Ottawa village at lebryk Roche which is modern-day cross village south of the Straits along the Lake Michigan shoreline Etherington was allowed to notify gladwyn and the commander at Fort lebih of his fate after being United with the garrison of fort lebay both groups of prisoners were eventually escorted to Montreal where they arrived on August 13th Amherst was very justly critical of Wetherington and his subordinate Lieutenant William Leslie in his personal journal Amherst wrote that very stupidly in unlike officers they walked out so as to permit the Indians who threw the ball toward the fort to intercept them seize them and carried them into the woods while many rushed into the fort where they had planted the squaws with hatchets under their blankets in an instant they had killed lieutenant Jimmy and 15 men and a traitor taking the rest prisoner so Amherst was not pleased with their performance at Mitchell American on a fort lebay that we just talked about is it Green Bay Wisconsin it was commanded by Lieutenant James Grall and he had a garrison of only 16 men relations with the local Indians were generally cordial the fort was not actually taken when Etherington had written to Gorrell after the capture of Mishler Mackinac he instructed him to abandon the post and to join him at lebryk Roche as quickly as possible Carell left the fort in care of the local Indians who generously offered to provide safe escort to live across they left on June 21st and arrived safely on June 30th as previously mentioned they were eventually taken to Montreal along with the survivors of Mishler Mackinac one thing I kind of like to point out at this point we've been through some of the smaller polls here the relations at all of these outposts were not always bad it's surprising the number ones even though the Indians took it over they protected the garrison no harm came to them and in this case they got him to Montreal from weot 9 they got him down to mobile so it wasn't all a bloody uprising even though they were taking the fort's back now Fort Ligonier which some of you may be familiar with it's about 50 miles east of Fort Pitt was garrisoned by lieutenant Archibald Blaine and only eight men plus the local civilians who were organized into a militia it was attacked on June 2nd and again on June 21st although constantly besieged the small garrison managed to hold out until it was relieved by Bouquets expedition in early August for Venango at Franklin Pennsylvania was essentially a black house surrounded by a small stockade since all of the garrison was killed little is known about the actual fall of the fork which occurred on either June 16th or June 17th one Indian account relates that all 15 men of the garrison were killed the commander and lieutenant Francis Gordon was forced to write a letter of Indian grievances before he too was put to death in the letter that he wrote eventually made its way to Sir William Johnson fort labeouf at Waterford Pennsylvania was held by ensign George price and 13 royal Americans they came under attack on June 18th but the garrison managed to escape under cover of darkness they headed for Fort Pitt and along the way they discovered that fort Van angle had been taken and burned to the ground the garrison of fort LeBeouf arrives safely at Fort Pitt On June 25th and June 26 fort Presque Isle at Erie Pennsylvania had a garrison of 29 men commanded by ensign John Christie the fort was attacked by about 200 Indians On June 20th who attempted to set it on fire with fire arrows just like in the movies sometimes the movies get it right the soldiers defended their postal all day long and then around midnight a french-speaking Indian demanded their surrender the Indians promised to let the garrison go wherever they please saying that they only wanted the fort the next morning Christie agreed to their terms but once the fort was given up the garrison was all taken prisoner and divided up among the various bands of Indians president Christie was released at Detroit on July 9th and later faced severe criticism for giving up his post Amherst wrote to bouquet a fixed revolution resolution should be taken by every commanding officer whose post is attacked by savages never to trust their promises but to defend his post to the last extremity okay now we're gonna move back to the action around Detroit just because Pontiacs plot remember he was kind of exposed at the meeting where he came to meet with gladwyn and decided not not to turn over the wampum belt and start to siege just because that didn't work the way he wanted it doesn't mean he was willing to give up his plan on May 8th the day after he aborted that plan he came back to the fort and met with gladwyn pledging peace and saying that the earlier incident had just been a misunderstanding gladwyn treated him politely but firmly and continued to strengthen his defenses the frustrated Indians began the fire and the fort and to supply ships that were anchored nearby and also began reading the surrounding countryside on may 10th Pontiac requested that captain Kemp Bell who was respected and well-liked came out come out to a French traders house to negotiate for peace gladwyn was reluctant to let camp bell go but he insisted in lieutenant George MacDougall offered to accompany him so although Pontiac promised that Kemp and camp Bell and the other officers that went with him should return whenever they please they were kept as hostages camp Bell was forced to write out Pontiacs terms basically that the English would have to give up their stores in return for safe conduct back to the eastern settlements gladwyn refused to even consider any negotiations as long as camp Bell and MacDougall were held captive the attack on Detroit them settled into what was more or less a siege something that was very unusual in Indian warfare Pontiacs warriors did their best to keep the fort bottled up cut off from reinforcements and supplies the schooner here on in the sloop Michigan however were able to make fairly regular trips to and from Fort Niagara so the fort was never really cut off from the outside world while keeping the pressure on the fort Pontiac also spent a considerable amount of time trying to main support for his cause and he had varying degrees of success the French local habitants especially were caught in a very very bad situation between the English and the Indians on May 13th lieutenant Abraham Tyler of the Kings Rangers left Fort Niagara with 96 men and 139 burros of provisions in ten bateau headed for the relief of Fort Detroit an evening of May 28th they landed at Point Palais about 25 miles from the mouth of the Detroit River the Indians were waiting for them and attacked them as they were setting up their camp only 40 of their men managed to escape and they were forced to turn back to Niagara those who were captured were taken to the Indian camp surrounded Torrey and eventually most or all of them were tortured to death it was a major victory for the Indians and a major setback for the British even though the smaller Western posts had fallen glad ones dogged resistance at Detroit was beginning to take its toll the Indians morale was starting to decline in about this time they officially learned about the Treaty of Paris which ended the war between France and Britain several tribal groups began privately to talk with gladwyn about making peace the pressure to keep his people supplied forced Pontiac to take provisions from the French even though he issued receipts for what he requisitioned this hurt his his support among the habitants on July 2nd lieutenant mcdougal and two captured traders saw an opportunity opportunity to escape they encouraged captain Campbell to join them but he declined because he was overweight and nearsighted and he feared that in running from one danger he would rush headlong into another which might end his days before theirs before his time the other three managed to make their way safely into the fort during the early morning hours then on July 4th lieutenant Jay who he and 30 men were sent out to drive the Indians and some of their French allies from the breastworks they had built northeast to the fore in the skirmish the nephew of the Egyptian was killed and scalped by a soldier who had previously been an Indian captive the death of his nephew infuriated Wasson and he demanded that Pontiac turn can't bail over to him and spread akimbo status as an emissary Pontiac conceded knowing full well what camp bells fate would be he was taken back to the Aegean killed him with a hatchet his body was then mutilated and his heart was eaten by the Indians early on the foggy morning of July 28 a long line of bateau filled with 260 men a force larger than the entire current garrison of Detroit was observed rowing up the Detroit River it was led by Captain James da Liang the first regiment of foot an ambitious young officer who was a former aide to general Amherst in one of his favorite officers accompanying dial-in at Amherst personal request was major Robert Rogers the famous Indian who now held the captain's Commission in the New York provincial or New York independent company Doyle immediately press gladwyn for permission to strike a decisive blow against the Indians he proposed a surprise nighttime attack on Pontiacs village gladwyn was not enthusiastic about this and was especially concerned about keeping any such attempt secret from the Indians he only reluctantly gave his consent perhaps because of Doyle's connection to general Amherst oh there is there is no surviving record of his thoughts it would be very interesting to know what the experienced Indian fighter Rogers thought of this idea almost certainly I feel that he would have had his own very serious reservations about it as well in the end Doyle was given a combined force of 247 regulars and Rangers in at 2:30 a.m. on July 31st they silently filed out of fort Detroit's Watergate to arm bateau accompanied them as they marched along the Detroit River bank about two miles from the fort they reached a narrow wooden bridge across what's then known as parents Creek and today we call it bloody run the Indians had indeed learned of the planned attack about four hundred warriors waited in ambush a large portion were poised to cut off the retreat route after the attack was launched the Indians unleashed their ambush just as the advance guard reached the middle of the bridge and simultaneously as planned they attacked the rear of the column the fighting was extremely fierce and it was only with great difficulty that the British were able to begin a gradual retreat though y'all showed great personal bravery and was mortally wounded while rushing to the aid of a wounded sergeant Rogers and his Rangers took possession of the French trader jock Bo's house fortifying the windows with bales of beaver skin they fought for two hours covering the retreat of the main body the arm bath toll under the command of Lieutenant Dietrich dream came back up the river and laid down a heavy fire enabling the Rangers eventually to make their own escape British casualties were heavy amounting to approximately 25 percent of their total force while Indian loss of losses may have been as few as six or seven killed in a dozen wounded now we'll go back to Fort Pitt and look at what's going on near Fort Pitt as you know modern-day Pittsburg was one of the largest and strongest British ports in North America its garrison of roughly 200 soldiers and militia was commanded by a wily Smith's West mercenary officer captain Simon a hire like the Western posts there were plenty of signs of trouble near Fort Pitt before hostilities actually broke out on May 29th Indians began to attack local settlers and tried to seal off the fort eek I tried to send messengers to warn the nearby smaller posts but they were either killed or full forced to turn back like gladwyn ekr was a tough and resourceful officer who was determined that his fort would not be captured well access to Fort Pitt was limited because of its strength the Indians did not office often attack it they were largely content with just small sorties in sniping at it from a distance during a conference on July 26 this came up in our last discussion here in great detail during this conference on 26 the Indians were given blankets and handkerchiefs from the smallpox Hospital the Indians were where the British were hoping that if the disease took hold it would force the Indians to lift the siege the most intense period of the siege was from July 28th through August 1st and of the attack on July 28th ek er later wrote only two arrows came into the fort one of which had the insolence to caress my left leg they cut her head kind of a sense of humor I guess - on June 6 general Amherst ordered the formation of a strong expedition to relieve Fort Pitt to be commanded by Colonel Henry bouquet bouquet was a Smith Swiss mercenary like ich hier and one of the most talented officers to serve in North America his biggest problem was finding enough troops fit for duty because many of the soldiers had been must mustered out after the French and Indian War in a good portion of those that were left were still sick from service in the Caribbean the force he finally assembled consisted of about three hundred and ninety 90 men mainly Highlanders in Royal Americans Colonel bouquet used fort Bedford at Raystown which is now Bedford Pennsylvania as a staging area for his force at the end of July he then crossed the difficult Laurel Ridge to relieve Fort Ligonier which he reached on August 2nd he left his wagons at Ligonier and proceeded on to Fort Pitt with only the supplies that he could carry on three hundred and forty pack horses Bouquet planned to march to bushi run station about halfway to Fort Pitt and then rest until he could cross dangerous Turtle Creek under cover of darkness the Indians had been watching his advance and were well aware of his position and his strength in about one o'clock on the afternoon of August 5th Bouquets advance guard was suddenly attacked many modern historians and authors believe that the Indians surprised bouquets force but Highland soldier Robert Kirkwood's account states that the column was expecting attack and was on high-alert the Battle of Bush Iran is well known and has true complex to describe in detail here basically what happened is after a hard afternoon of intense fighting the British were still holding their own they settled down for a long and stressful night with the wounded suffering terribly from thirst bouquets own writings indicate that he was not sure that his men could withstand another day of fighting he devised a plan whereby a portion of his line would collapse in the hope of drawing the Indian pursuers into a position where they could be caught in a crossfire when the fighting resumed on August 6 his plan worked beautifully and the Indians were severely beaten largely by using their own tactics Highlander Kirkwood relates the Indians thought we were going to break and run away and being sure of their prey came in upon us in the greatest disorder but they soon found their mistake before he met them with our fire first and then made terrible havoc amongst them with our fixed bayonets and continuing to push them everywhere they set to their heels and were never able to rally again the column although exhausted and having suffered heavy casualties eventually made its way to relieve the big-leaguer garrison at Fort Pitt about four hundred Indians had attacked Bouquet 20 Indian dead were later recovered but their losses were undoubtedly greater and the British losses were estimated at about 50 killed 60 wounded and five missing meanwhile the siege at Fort Pitt was continuing and then on at dawn on August 10th couriers from bouquet arrived with the news that help would soon be there the rest of bouquets column arrived later that afternoon and the siege of Fort Pitt was finally at an end okay so the forager pit had been lifted but fighting in the East was far from over on September 14th the Battle of Devil's Hole an empty supply convoy on the crucial Niagara portage was attacked and virtually wiped out as was a relief force that came to its assistant then on October 19th another British force was ambushed near Buffalo Creek at the East End of Lake Erie but after some fierce fighting they eventually got the best of their attackers on October 20th Pontiac held one last grand council with her followers his influence had been rapidly slipping affected by the approaching winter and the Indians need to provide for their families on a twenty ninth four inches of snow in a hard Frost helped many of his followers decide to give up the siege that night a messenger from major de Villiers at Fort de sharp arrived carrying letters to Pontiac to the French habitants and a major gladwyn he told them that the French and Indian Indians discovering French and English had made their peace and he asked that all Indians do likewise in 1764 the next year two British expeditions one under bouquet and the other under Colonel John Bradstreet were sent into the Ohio Company they were to crush any further resistance to negotiate a formal peace and to arrange for the return of English hostages Pontiacs uprising probably the greatest Indian effort in history was over after the war Pontiacs influence was considerably diminished but he always retained a small band of loyal followers he lived quietly supporting his family and once he reconciled himself to peace with the English he did his best to keep it and encouraged other Indians to do the same on April 20th 1769 at a trading post at Cahokia Illinois near st. Louis he was assassinated by a Peoria Indian well there clearly were many catalysts for the war Pontiac as being one of the major players cannot be denied here's the way we summed it up in our book we said it and I'm talking about myself and dr. Harborne here it is fair to state that in simple terms the revolt was a general uprising by the Indians against the British to preserve their culture and way of life it was horrible and devastating both sides had legate legitimate complaints in both sides committed wrongs against the other perhaps Colonel bouquet said it best as far as identifying the main cause for the war he said it was due to the British authorities being too saving of a few presence to the savages which properly distributed would certainly have prevented it maybe if they to listen to him things would have been a lot different anyway that's all I have I'll be happy to entertain any questions or tyrion a further discussion with anyone who wishes to stay thank you for your time and i hope you enjoyed it you [Applause] you

Channel: Armstrong Neighborhood Channel

Views: 76

Rating: 5 out of 5

Keywords: Armstrong Cable, Armstrong, French Creek Heritage Event, Overview of the Pontiac Indian Uprising 1763-64

Id: HVZRY2PtXFc

Length: 42min 18sec (2538 seconds)

Published: Tue Jul 24 2018