Exam Preparation - 1805NRS Anatomy & Physiology

urinary system can take your mentary system and so forth you need to know examples or examples of structures that sit within h-naught details just examples of structures and and generalized function of each of these organ systems do and how they perform it and then the last one for the very first lecture which is intro into AM P is defined homeostasis and the terms positive and negative feedback so positive negative feedback it's firstly homeostasis is homeo means similar stasis means standing or standing still the body needs to maintain homeostasis that means it needs to maintain a happy healthy equilibrium of physiology of function what are these well for example we've got temperature that's negative feedback for homeostasis we've got labour that's positive feedback homeostasis it all works via the same components you have some sort of stimulus which is picked up by a receptor that then gets sent to the control center via an afferent signal in the control center can be multiple organs the major organ that's a control center is usually the brain and what the control center does is it takes this afferent signal coming from the receptor and makes a decision as it were as to what it wants to do with the signal ok so it evaluates it and decides and then sends an efference signal that's away from the control center to the effector and the effector is always going to have the effect for example with temperature stimulus can be a drop in temperature this stimulates thermoreceptors that sends an afferent signal via a nervous system to the brain specifically the hypothalamus that's the control center it then evaluates this it says hey it's too cold I need to warm the body up so it sends an efferent signal to the muscles and the muscles contract relaxed contract relaxed contract relax that shivering releasing heat and then that brings the body temperature back up and the muscles contracting are the effector so you'll need to know examples of each of these homeostatic components for the end of trimester exam alright that's the end of the first lecture the second lecture was going through body chemistry so the first one says define and distinguish between the terms atom element and ion what difference so you've got the periodic table right you've got hydrogen helium so remember you got hydrogen helium lithium beryllium boron carbon nitrogen oxygen fluorine neon sodium magnesium get a whole bunch of different atoms now the atom on the periodic table says that if it's a hydrogen atom it's going to one proton one electron one Neutron okay helium two protons two neutrons right so this is what they're they're neutral that's what these atoms are now an element is a hydrogen element will be comprised of multiple hydrogen ions that means Hajin element is going to have multiple atoms that have one proton one Neutron one electron okay a helium element is going to have multiple helium atoms one two protons two neutrons two electrons all right now that's the difference with atom an element when we've got ion what's an ion or an ion is going to be a charged atom or element how do we know whether it's going to be charged or not well you need to have a look and see which atom is closest to its nearest noble gas for example these are noble gases right here if we've got something like sodium right sodium is going to be 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 it's number 11 on the periodic table wants to be closest to neon which is number 10 so it wants to lose an electron because that has 11 electrons that it's 10 it loses one to be more likely in neon and then sodium is left with a charge so these are the ions okay now you don't need to do this calculation in the exam but you do need to understand that an ion is a charged atom or element can be positively charged can be negatively charged all right so that's the define the difference between the terms atom element and I on what's going to be the next one that's going to double check on the YouTube page to see if everyone can still hear me will this be so for later yes it will I will be saving this for everybody to watch later on alright the next one is outline the four major types of macromolecules and how they can contribute to body physiology so firstly you need to know that we've got proteins carbs fats which we term lipids and nucleotides they're the four macronutrients now these four macronutrients proteins they're building blocks cards energy lipids also energy but also storage of energy and protects organs and certain structures anchors structures as well and nucleotides are involved in DNA synthesis and also protein synthesis as well proteins so these are the macromolecules so they're going to be made up of smaller monomers so these are the polymers it's multiple subunits what are the monomers associated with it or proteins are made up of amino acids carbohydrates can be made up of predominately glucose lipids are made up of gotta get their white board lipids are made up of predominately triglycerides and the tribe you sir fatty acids and glycerol okay and nucleotide are made up of nucleic acids this is a's T's GS and C's alright so these are the monomers the triglycerides is a polymer made up of fatty acids and glycerol so when you have a look what are the monomers for proteins amino acids one of the monomers for carbs glucose could also be fructose and galactose for example for the monomers for lipids fatty acids and glycerol or the monomers for nucleotides there going to be a steez GS and C's adenine thymine guanine and cytosine all right what's another one outline the physiological significance of electrolytes and how they contribute to pH and their nature and function of buffers a lot of people get the buffer stuff wrong let's have a quick look at the buffers firstly you need to know the definition of a buffer buffers resist drastic changes in pH that's their definition and when we look at the role of electrolytes in pH pH is simply the measurement of or concentration of hydrogen ions pH is equal to the concentration of hydrogen ions that's the symbol for concentration so if the concentration of hydrogen ions go up the pH and unmark goes down because it is a inverse relationship don't stress too much about that but if the hydrogen ion concentration goes up pH goes down and becomes more acidic so high hydrogen ions equal acid low hydrogen ions equal base but more specifically you can define an acid in the base like this an acid donates hydrogen ions and a base accepts hydrogen ions that's the definition all right that's the first thing which means if I were to so when we look at buffers buffers are going to be made up of things that donate hydrogen ions and accept hydrogen ions because they need to resist drastic changes in pH the pH goes too low there's too many hydrogen ions we need to buffer it out we need to accept those Hodgins if the pH is too high it's too basic we need to donate Hajin arms so buffers will be made up of acids and bases let's have a look one important one that you need to know for the exam is that bicarbonate buffering system so co2 plus h2o gives you h2 co3 which gives you H plus h co 3 negative right that's the bicarbonate buffering system equation now what's it mean means this when you hold your breath carbon dioxide levels increase carbon dioxide will jump into the blood from the airways in the blood it's made up of predominately water bonds with water and produces carbonic acid it's called carbonic acid because we know the definition of an acid it donates hydrogen ions there's a hydrogen ion that's donated and what we're left with is bicarbonate ion all right now bicarbonate ion is the base here because if it wants to it can bind to the hydrogen ion and mop it up absorb it it accepts it therefore it's a base that's the acid carbonic acid that's the base bicarbonate and that means that when co2 levels go up it pushes the equation in this direction hydrogen ions go up so the more co2 in the body more hydrogen ions in the body the more acidic we become that means there how do we control co2 by breathing so if I breathe hyperventilate I'm breathing off all that co2 which effectively means the co2 decreases and that means the amount of hydrogen ions in the system decrease so what that means is this part of the equation here represents breathing and it tells you that in the short term we can alter our blood pH by breathing all right now in the long term if this isn't sufficient we can play around with this end of the equation and the kidneys play around with this end of the equation and this is long term breathing is short term to change pH the kidneys are long term to change pH we can excrete or reabsorb either of those two at our kidneys to alter the pH all right make sure you know that for the exam all right what's another point we can go through discuss the processes of diffusion and osmosis ah let's go back to the YouTube page quickly see how we're all going alright so when we want to have a look at the processes of diffusion and osmosis firstly let's go through diffusion actually let's just break it up into active and passive transport because that way you cover a couple of learning outcomes first one is this passive versus active transport we're talking about how do things move across a cell if I've got a cell here or a cell here we know that surrounded by a phospholipid membrane phospholipid membranes do not let anything through that is large or charged that's the first thing it doesn't let anything through that's large or charged keep that in mind now passive transport passive means no energy doesn't utilize ATP active means it does utilize ATP that's the first difference next difference is this passive is always down the concentration gradient active is always against or up the concentration gradient you know those two things you're going to be fine but you also need to know some subcategories of passive and active for example if it doesn't require energy and it's going down the gradient you think of that slide that I talked about right if you want to go down a slide you're up the top run up here and you just want to go down the slide all you need to do is let go and then you go slide no energy if you want to go back up to the top you have to climb the ladder that costs ATP low to high ATP title oh no ATP so another thing you need to know is sitting outside the cell predominantly we have sodium ions we've got a whole bunch of sodium sitting outside the cell we've also got a whole bunch of potassium sitting inside the cell all right now everything wants to go down its concentration gradient that means if sodium wants to go from outside the inside it wants to do this naturally goes down its concentration gradient from high to low that means it's passive transport but is it large no its size of an atom so it's tiny is it charged yes it is so it can't just freely move through therefore if sodium wants to diffuse into the cell it needs a channel therefore this type of movement is called facilitated diffusion or channel mediated diffusion it's still passive transport what about potassium if it it wants to get out it's the same thing it needs a channel for passed potassium to diffuse out and needs a channel it's called facilitated diffusion or channel mediated diffusion but if potassium there was a couple of potassium ions outside and it wanted to go in it's going against its concentration gradient it's going uphill therefore it requires a TP and it's called active transport all right so it's a couple of different types there's primary active transport that's where I've got all the potassium inside and I got some potassium outside if I want to get that potassium from outside to inside I need pump which takes that potassium and Chuck's it in and does it using ATP that's called primary active transport secondary active transport was this potassium for example piggybacked on sodium that normally just diffuses in so if there was a channel here for sodium to diffuse in if potassium decided to I'm just going to pick you back on this and diffusing as well that's called a secondary active transport that can happen in the same direction called simple happen in the opposite direction anti port all right what else we got to go so that's second lecture done what about the third lecture cell DNA and hereditary so if we go through the cell DNA and hereditary what we need to do is go through identify organelles in the cell and briefly state their function so the organelles of the cell we've gone through all this before inside the cell you know multiple organelles there's small sub cellular structures and what they do is this you've got the nucleus houses the DNA we've got the rough endoplasmic reticulum has ribosomes it synthesizes that RNA from the nucleus and synthesizes proteins from that RNA these proteins are destined for exploitation that's what the ribosomes sitting on the rough endoplasmic reticulum do it also then transports those proteins to the Golgi apparatus which then modify some packages of those proteins for exportation out of the cell also got the smooth and deposit reticulum which is important for detoxification therefore high levels in the liver and also for lipid production as well the aprox is ohms you got lysozymes give lysosomes you've got all these different other sub cellular structures make sure you go through them and you know what they do understand the basics of Mendelian inheritance of somatic and sex chromosomes all right couple people got these wrong in the mid trimester exam it's easy let's go through a couple of important points first important point when it comes to inheritance is this you've got 23 pairs of chromosomes of these 23 pairs of chromosomes one to twenty-two they're the somatic chromosomes and 23 that's the sex chromosomes right now does that mean that means this they were inherited differently first thing is this for the somatic one to twenty two if I said to you that my parents both of them had a recessive gene in chromosome 1 that means for example recessive inheritance is where you require two copies to get the particular phenotype that's the way you present okay so if it's chromosome 1 if a big copy of chromosome 1 meant healthy and a little copy mutated then for mum mums gonna have a pair of chromosome 1 I've got a pair of chromosome one that's got a pair of chromosome 1 she only gives me one dad only gives me one therefore I've got my pair same happen for my mom and my dad so if mum is a carrier for a recessive disease that sits in chromosome 1 then she's going to have a big one and a little one all right now if she had the disease in chromosome 1 that was recessive should have a little one and a little one if she did not have the disease and was not a carrier she'd have big one big one okay hopefully that makes sense because when it comes to inheritance and we're looking at punnett squares for somatic chromosomes we've got mum we got dad let's say that both carries for a recessive disease it's it's in chromosome 1 that means mums going to have big one little one dad's gonna have big one little one and then you can see how they have potential offspring what happens is big one can be with big one big one little one big one little one little one little one and what we enough have is this 25% cuz there's four here right four possible outcomes 25% of the offspring normal uneven carriers 50% of the offspring carriers 25% of the offspring will have the disease right this is how it happens for chromosome 1 all the way up to 22 but if I ask you a question in the exam about chromosome 23 which is the sex chromosomes well then something else happens sex chromosome 4 this dad right I had a number before so let's have mum mum is xx that's her sex chromosomes dad is XY and what are the potential outcomes for offspring X X X X X Y XY that's why mum and dad could potentially have 50% chance of having girls 50% chance of having genetic boys all right now what about diseases or this is the important point if mum is a carrier for a disease in the X chromosome so she needs two copies she's only got a mutation in one of them what happens is this xx normal expects this one's got a mutation XY normal XY mutation all right what does this now mean it means that 50% of girls will be carriers if man was a carrier it means that 50% the boys will have the disease because they don't have a second chromosome X to make up for that damage 1 they're gonna get the disease okay that's what happens with sex chromosomes all right all right now what are we going to go through so that was the chromosomes let's have a look at based on the plasma membrane structures oh I went through active transport passive transport diffusion I didn't go through osmosis and tonicity let's get almost this antenna city alright so if again I have a cell and there's and tration difference from one side of that cell to the other let's say for sodium what happens is this if you've got a lot of sodium outside but not much sodium inside okay and you want to balance it out remember the body just wants to balance out concentrations from one side of a membrane to another just once the balancé balancé balancé balancé if it's not balanced and the ions or the solutes can't move then the solvent moves what's the solvent biologically it's always going to be water so what happens here in this case if it's more concentrated outside the cell and inside the cell the water will move out okay this is osmosis if it's more concentrated inside the water will move in therefore you can define it as though osmosis is the movement of water from an area of high water concentration to an area of low water concentration you may be thinking why is it low water out here and high water out here because there's more solute out here taking up the space less solutes here taking up space therefore more water here that's water here if this happens you know think about this clinically all right if you're studying to be a nurse or a doctor what's going to happen here normally the concentration of this stuff is balanced from outside to inside right therefore if you inject something into a patient and it's a high concentration of something and it's going to sit outside the cell because it's gone from your bloodstream to the tissues compared to inside that means you've now just injected a hypertonic solution this is hyper tonic hypo means more than tonic is referring to concentration that means water wants to balance it out if these can't move through the cell membrane which they likely can't what all move and water rushes out before the rushes out once you've given somebody a hypertonic solution the cell shrinks and that shrinking is called crow nation all right so remember that the opposite if hypotonic solution is represented outside the cell that means it's less concentrated outside the cell compared to inside water will move in the opposite direction and will all move in to balance out the concentration and the cell will swell okay they'll swell so much that it nice and if it Lices the means of bursts all right so that's tonicity all right let's check the YouTube page I mean the Facebook page - everyone's gone alright so what now is we're going to have a look at tissues and the integumentary system part so what do you need to know about the tissues well know that when we look at tissues you're going to have different types of tissues connective tissue muscle tissue nervous tissue and epithelial tissue what do you need to know about each so remember that connective tissue is made up of cells gels and fibers all right the cells depend on the type of the connective tissue because connective tissue can be bone connective tissue can be blood connective tissue can be currently small the different cell types associated with it the gels are going to be everything in between right like the cement mix and the fibers are going to be embedded in and it determines the property of that particular type of connective tissue if it's remember three different types of fibers in connective tissue are elastic reticular and collagen if you want tough tissue its collagen stretchy tissue elastic and if you want tissue that's going to play some sort of filtration role or maybe it's going to be a type of tissue that needs to be distend a ball or being able to be squished and move particular muscle tissue three types smooth cardiac and Scully smooth muscle cardiac muscle unconsciously controlled okay skeletal muscle consciously control it's called skeletal because it's attached to your skeleton so biceps tongue face legs they're all going to be skeletal muscle cardiac muscle is the heart that's an easy one smooth muscle it limes hollow organs digestive system including esophagus small intestine large intestines can also be that of the urinary system but also be that of the reproductive system all right nervous tissue what do you need to know to know about neurons and glia you're on send the electrical signals glia they support the neurons in their role lament epithelia what do you need to know epithelial remember form equals function remember that will be going through epithelia in one second so form equals function and when we look at form equals function you can have different types you can have simple epithelia that means one layer you can add stratified epithelia that means more than one layer you can have squamous epithelia that means squished you can have cuboidal that means it's shaped like a cube you can have columnar that means it's shaped like a column therefore you can have simple columnar one layer of column soap shaped cells stratified squamous many layers of squish cells okay and the form equals the function if it's stratified squamous it's many layers and squished it's there for protection when it comes to the integumentary system when it comes to the integumentary system make sure you just go through basically the general layers so epidermis dermis hypodermis now there's multiple layers in the epidermis you don't need to know them dermis hypodermis epidermis has those multiple layers the cells are sitting in the epidermis so the keratinocytes melanocytes Merkel cells Langerhans all these cell types sit within the epidermis okay you got Merkel touch receptors Langerhans they're there for immune system function keratinocytes are there for protection and melanocytes are there for UV protection of the cells the dermis this is where those bodies of the hair follicles are going to be sitting this is going to be where all the sweat glands and oil glands sit as well and the hypodermis is basically all just fat all right so just know those major differences you'll be fine alright skeletal system explain the a function of each of the three types of cartilage so three types of cartilage include you can have fibrocartilage elastic cartilage and you're going to have the Highland cartilage nearly forgot all right fiber cartilage what's important about that fiber cartilage resists resists compressive forces and it's found in the spine right elastic cartilage it's going to be distend a ball and it's found in the ear and epiglottis you Highland cartilage and it lines ends of long bones so for example if I've got a bone like this which looks like that off the flintstones lining the end of that long bone is going to be Highland cartilage because it's there to reduce friction all right describe the basic structure and function of bone and how they how different cell types contribute to bone physiology all right for example if long bones long bones is going to be a bone that looks like that for example all right and we've got the diathesis we've got the metathesis sorry the metathesis and the epiphysis and you've got the distal so proximal distal right now you've got a hollow inside that's called the medullary cavity you're going to have compact bone and you're gonna have spongy bone inside the medullary cavity of long bones is going to be yellow bone marrow for adults in a child this medullary cavity has a red bone marrow that's the site for red blood cell production the different cells okay remember the different cells of bones include the osteo osteo is the prefix for bone and then blast means to build they build the bone your osteoclasts they crush the bone your osteoprogenitor cells their stem cells and you got osteo sites they mature osteoblasts so just remember the blast build the class crush all right the sites they stay there and they just determine what's going on does it meet the bill doesn't need to crush whatever at learn the process of process of calcium homeostasis alright calcium homeostasis so look first thing is you've got your thyroid gland behind the thyroid gland is the parathyroid gland it releases parathyroid hormone so here's the thyroid gland here are the parathyroid glands sitting on the back of the thyroid when blood at calcium levels are low it stimulates the parathyroid glands to release parathyroid hormone parathyroid hormone with vitamin D which is coming from sunlight and their skin do a couple of thing together together what they do is they increase calcium absorption at the intestines at the small intestines they decrease calcium excretion at the kidneys and they increase osteoclasts to break the bone down all of these have the desired effect of increasing blood calcium levels see how that's negative feedback stimulus was low blood calcium receptor was the parathyroid gland but also it was the control center release parathyroid hormone which together with vitamin D increased calcium absorption at the small intestines decrease calcium excretion at the kidneys and increased osteoclast activity at the bone breaking the bone down releasing the calcium into the blood list the major bones you can do that yourself there's a list there understand the basics of synovial joints just make sure you go through with the synovial joints the six different types and whether they are multiaxial biaxial uniaxial and so forth alright let's just 6 fundamentals of the nervous system we're getting into the fun stuff we've all done an exam on everything up until this point this is the stuff you haven't done an exam on so compare and contrast there's structural functional divisions of the central nervous system peripheral nervous system so this one's easy when you've got the brain that's a terrible brain but you've got the brain brainstem spinal cord this is the central nervous system brain brainstem spinal cord then you're going to have all the nerves that shoot out the way and come back in that's the peripheral nervous system there were two major divisions with the peripheral nervous system you can break it up into sensory and motor alright these are things coming in these are things going out what's coming in what type of sensory input is there well it's going to be coming from our skin and out of body this is somatic and coming from our organs called visceral alright so somatic from the body visceral from inside the body for motor you're going to have basically somatic which is all conscious movement then you're going to have autonomic which is unconscious movement and this then gets broken up into the sympathetic nervous system and a para sympathetic nervous system alright let's the cell types neurons glia and describe their anatomical physiological significance a couple of glia that you need to know first glia they're supporting cells what do they do you get ependymal cells they make the cerebral spinal fluid in the ventricles you've got the microglia they're actually immune cells you've got oligodendrocytes they make the myelin sheath that wraps the axons in the central nervous system you got the Schwann cells they did the exact same thing but in the peripheral nervous system okay epidermal microglia are we go to inter sites Schwann cells what else are there a couple different types I count them enroll them right now but make sure you go back through them remember if you have any questions just pop them up there's anything you want we go through just ask all right explain and for the neuron if you go to neuron right that's how I do a mind you're on you get the soma which is the body and have a nucleus as well you have the axon which is going to be surrounded by Milan then you have the axon terminals as well and on the soma usually you've got dendrites and they usually receive the signal coming from the previous and your on or from wherever it's coming from all right explain basis of the generation transmission of a nerve action potential including the role of the important ions and channels this is a big one all right yes we'll go through a muscle contraction that's coming up so if we first go through the action potential you need to know the action potential if you can do this you'll be fine if you can draw up a graph and on that graph you can put on seventy last fifty five zero positive 30 so if you can do that right that's going to be voltage so that's millivolts then here's going to be time in milliseconds right and we know that a neuron the resting membrane potential is going to be sitting in around about negative seventy until it starts to get stimulated now when it stimulates channels open up if these channels open up enough let's draw it up over here actually it's a neuron here right at rest we know it's negatively charged inside the cell compared to outside the cell where it's positively charged and put an electrode in the difference between outside inside of 70 now what happens is I slowly stimulate this neuron it opens up some some channels that are specific for sodium some sodium leaks into the cell takes it suppose with it and it makes this part of neuron slightly positive it's that's the bump up if enough positive sodium go in that it hits the threshold negative 55 then all the voltage-gated sodium channels along the axon open up in a domino like fashion and all this positive sodium rushes in carrying its charge with it that's why it spikes up to positive 30 then at positive 30 the sodium channels shut at positive 30 potassium channels open up and potassium inside the cell therefore if their channels open up potassium leaks out taking at the positive charge with it therefore this drops back down so much potassium leaks out that it goes below maybe 55 goes below the resting membrane potential negative 70 goes down to around about negative 90 and then everything's the opposite all the sodium's in or the potassium is out that's the opposite of a normal resting cell how do we swap it back over that's when we get the sodium potassium ATPase pumps throws potassium in throw sodium out then it resets it now we're back to normal that's an action potential you need to know that's the resting membrane potential this part could be polarization that's where sodium comes in this path called repolarization and so a potassium goes out and this is called hyper-polarization and that's where more potassium goes out all right so that's an action potential you need to know that all right describe a synapse outline events associated with the synaptic transmission so we just spoke about the action potential going down and you're on what happens when it gets to the end and wants to speak to the next neuron that's called synaptic transmission when we have a look at synaptic transmission what happens is this and here's the next neuron so we've had our action potential all this sodium's come in bum bum bum bum bum bum bum so all this positive sodium is coming in now we hit the end of the neuron rat reaction on axon terminals all this positive stuff coming in triggers a new type of voltage-gated channel got a voltage-gated sodium channel but a voltage-gated calcium channel the lid pops open and calcium jumps in to the axon terminal of the cell of the neuron this end triggers the release of these small little vesicles that contain your own transmitters tells them to then bind to the axon terminals they then bud off and release their contents and they diffuse across the synaptic asan the other side when they bind to their receptors that leads to the opening of more sodium channels and now sodium diffuses in and now the action potential is sent down the next neuron all right so that's synaptic transmission all right describe the basis new transmitters ok when we go through neurotransmitters you don't need to know a lot of details about those particular neurotransmitter what you need to know is show you a second checking the pay the Facebook page all right so when we look at the neurotransmitter all you need to know really is this I said I write the full word don't forget that acetylcholine is abbreviated let up you need to write the full word to get full mark Siddall colon is involved in skeletal muscle contraction soon colon is involved in memory in the central nervous system Sylla colon is involved in the autonomic nervous system when you look at adrenaline or noradrenaline it's involved with the sympathetic nervous system when we have a look at dopamine reward and movement in the basal ganglia when we look at substance P pain transmission and serotonin gabon glutamate glutamate excitatory neurotransmitter gaba inhibitory neurotransmitter all right now let's look at central nervous system so I go through the identify the following areas of the brain and their function alright some important points when we go through the central nervous system with the brain and their function so you're going to have firstly divisions now these divisions include the frontal lobe now I'm talking about the cortex ear cortex as they add a couple of millimeters of the brain itself frontal lobe parietal lobe occipital lobe and temporal lobe you've also got the insula which if I move that temporal lobe away you're gonna have a basement part of the brain that's going to be the insulin that's therefore guessed a Tori sensation so taste alright what's important here is this occipital therefore vision temporal therefore hearing frontal and parietal now other things but that's all I want to know at the moment but frontal and parietal is this parietal lobe is for sensory picks up and understands sensory information frontal motor information it begins there all motor is going down in a way aren't all sensory was going up there for sensory makes sense here motor begins here and goes down to the body so remember that part when we look at the diencephalon thalamus hypothalamus epithalamus a couple of things it's going to be sitting around about here you know the hypothalamus with the pituitary glands underneath the thalamus is going to be sitting deep in the brain around about there the thalamus is the sorting center right it's like the post office takes information determines work needs to go hypothalamus is the master regulator of the sympathetic nervous system and the endocrine system as well the epithalamus is involved in the pineal gland has important roles of sleep-wake cycles what about the brainstem midbrain pons and medulla all you need to know about that is that it's very important when it comes to breathing so rest raishin cardiovascular function basic functions as well reflexive like cough reflex and so forth and the cerebellum which is that little brain that sits at the back right the cerebellum is very important when it comes to balance coordination proprioception all right so balance corner perceptions are very importantly modulating your movement let's have a look at describe the structure function of protecting mechanisms with certain central nervous system including blood brain barrier meningeal layers and cerebral spinal fluid okay blood brain barrier is a mechanism that selectively chooses what it wants to go from the blood to the brain and there's a couple of different layers of the blood brain barrier it includes the endothelium so that's the blood itself so that endothelium have these tight junctions that don't let anything through so the endothelial layer is one mechanism and you've also going to have a basement membrane underneath that you're also going to have these parasites which are glia that actually have little legs that sit on top right Leigha and these things altogether play an important role in selecting what comes through the blood streaming goes to the brain and what doesn't get to the brain the meningeal layers are a little bit different the meningeal layers you can actually because you can't see the blood-brain barrier you can see them in G layers if you get the brain itself you're going to have the meningeal layer that's closest ly adherent to the brain which you can draw like this which is called the P art matter which means soft mother then you're going to have the next layout which is for the arachnoid mater let's call that because it's got this spider black projections it's the arachnoid mater right and then the last one is the dura mater which means tough mother it's like a paper bag that sits on the outside right there the arachnoid mater in this subarachnoid space that's where cerebrospinal fluid it floats around and then that last thing leads us into cerebral spinal fluid that is produced cerebral spinal is produced by the ventricles of the brain right and if we were to look at the ventricles of the brain you're going to have two lateral ventricles let's just run up a little bit better you've got four ventricles basically of the brain these are these hollowed pockets within the brain they're hollowed out from when we began our journey to create the nervous system has a hollow tube and the foldings and undulation resulted in is two right and so what you've got is a paired ventricles here called the lateral ventricles then you've got the third ventricle and you've got the fourth ventricle where does it sit it's basically going to be sitting like this I'll draw the brain over the top of it that back so that means the lateral ventricles are sitting deep within the cerebellum itself so the third ventricle sitting near the thalamus and hypothalamus you can see the fourth ventricle sitting right where the pons is and behind it's going to go close to where the cerebellum is and again ependymal cells that sit within these ventricles produce cerebral spinal fluid okay let's look at the sensory and motor tracts other people have difficulties with the sensory motor tracts let's have a look I'm losing my voice a little bit so I'm sorry about that how long we've been going for 54 minutes gone no wonder alright so if we have a look at sensory tracts firstly let's drop the brain alright let's label some stuff let's put the thalamus in here we've got the midbrain the pons and the medulla midbrain pons Madonna alright and we're gonna so we're to a max sensory now let's look at sensory signals fine touch somebody touches my hand finally it gets a pen maybe feather tickles my hand a bit of sensory information is going to be coming in right once it gets into my spinal cord it goes straight up to the medulla that's when they remember this is fine touch what's the other name for fine touch it's the dorsal column medial lemniscus pathway good name dorsal column medial lemniscus pathway you need to know this fine touch goes into the spinal cord goes up the same side to the medulla where it's I naps is with the next neuron crosses over called decussation at the medulla then it goes up to the thalamus where it synapse is with the third neuron and then goes to the part of the parietal cortex evolved in somatic sensation of the hand it goes ah you've now touched your hand how many neurons here 1 2 3 fine touch what about pain what if I had a painful stimuli that was coming from my hand as well well it goes in so this is now pain or temp pain or temperature right goes in sign APS's once it goes in with the second order neuron and crosses to the other side decussation crossing the other side then goes up doesn't sign ups at the medulla like find touch does but does at the thalamus because remember the thalamus is the relay center sign app says go so part of the brain that deals with the hand and says hey it's pain what's the difference between pain also known as the spinothalamic pathway what's the difference between fine touch where it synapse is where it crosses over all right make sure you know that what about motor well let's just do motor here motor is going to come from the frontal cortex right the prefrontal cortex it's going to send a signal that goes down and basically motor will go down and all sign-ups pretty much at the level in which it needs to leave the body ok I've actually buggered that up because it's going to cross over at the Manoa it goes down and cross over at the medulla and then it's going to sign ups at the level so you get the upper motor neuron and the lower motor neuron alright okay we're getting there at lecture 8 peripheral nervous system outline a sensory processing reflexes paying temperature touch chemical stimuli are something important here is this when you look at the spinal cord and what it draw the caught up right cross section you've got the gray matter here and the white matter here you're also going to have the spinal nerves coming out on both sides I need to be able to label this I actually need to know gray matter dorsal gray horn venture gray horn so that means this is dorsal that's back this is ventral that's belly that's front right you got the-- what's this this is the ganglia this is the dorsal root ganglia all right and it goes through a mix spot on of all sensory information will come in via the back always always always that's where the ganglia sits that's the body that sits outside the central nervous system but all motor information will lead by the front always always always don't forget that okay all right let's have a look at 12 cranial nerves look and do a lot of detail here because that could be a whole error in itself just remember the tip I gave you when it came to remembering them all right there you do need to know for the exam you need to know the names of the cranial nerves the number of the cranial nerves whether it's sensory or motor and also its function so remember oh oh oh to touch and feel very good velvet heaven right Oh Oh to touch and feel very good velvet our heaven so first letter of each optic I run up so I'll factory optic oculomotor trochlear trigeminal abducens facial vestibular cochlea glossopharyngeal Vegas accessory and hypoglossal and then you say some say married so that's just going to be one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve so remember one two three four five six seven eight nine ten eleven twelve question is will you have the numbers for the cranial nerves in Roman numerals for example maybe I will I can't remember what I write down pretty sure I just wrote the name or could have the number the Roman numeral number so make sure you remember it okay remember some say Mary money but my brother says big brains matter you ever missed some stock no no get up some say Mary money but my brother says big brains matter most s sensory m for motor B for both right so remember that remember their function or factory sense of smell optic vision oculomotor moving the iron Chalkley and moving the iowa traget chocolate means pulley trigeminal is going to be both sensory and motor sensory for face motive for chewing abducens is going to be to abduct the Iowa facial is going to be moving the face but also anterior taste the two thirds of the tongue vestibular cochlea is going to be balance and sound because the pharyngeal is going to be swallowing but it's both focused around deals also sensation at the back of the tongue and swallowing as well Vegas is going to be everything below head and neck so heart lungs so forth accessory is going to be shot in the shoulder and hypoglossal is moving on the time all right there's a 12 cranial nerves comparing contrast oh we're going to do the plexuses all you need to know about the spinal nerve plexuses so what you need to know about the spinal nerve plexuses this and just go check the Facebook page again if there's any questions on there okay so we look at the spinal nope this is what do you need to know you need to have a look at the firstly cervical plexus brachial plexus you need to look at remember there's no thoracic plexus but there's a lumbar plexus there is a sacral plexus all right and when we look at these four plexuses so you're going to have cervical plexus what do you need to know well you need to know that the cervical plexus does the back of the head the neck and the shoulders and of the cervical plexus a little bit of the brachial - you know c3 c4 c5 c3 c4 c5 so c3 c4 c5 keeps you alive is what we say and that's the phrenic nerve and the phrenic nerve innervates the diaphragm remember that now with the brachial plexus brachial plexus is going to have nerves that so it's going to be round about c6 to t1 and it's going to have nerves that do the radial nerve ulnar nerve and median all right radial moves of thumb median going to be the middle owner is going to be gun moves its way around the elbow and pinky finger as well now with the lumbar plexus you're going to know that you're gonna have a femoral nerve and what the femoral nerve does is it basically anterior medial medial and lateral aspects of the thigh and then we will look at sacral region of the sciatic nerve basically does ass back of the thigh and everything below the knee so there your survival plexuses all right okay now what do we need to know we need to go through compare and contrast sympathetic parasympathetic nervous systems what do you need to know for that right both the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems which I can do a little bit differently because they are different lengths all right when we look at the sympathetic parasympathetic nervous systems first one is this is the sympathetic that's fight or flight this parasympathetic that's rest and digest both the two neuron chains are paired the allman autonomic nervous system you get scared sympathetic nervous system what happens is when you get when you're resting digesting peripheral a parasympathetic nervous system so let's just say both of them want to ultimately innervate the heart right sympathetic nervous system is going to increase its contractile force and speed right how are sympathetic nervous system is going to decrease the contractile force and decrease the speed all right how does it do it like this pre ganglionic neuron is the first one pre ganglionic that's for both postganglionic for both don't forget those terms for both the SIB thirty parasympathetic nervous system they both release acetylcholine that's the neurotransmitter and they both bind to nicotinic receptors at the postganglionic neuron now the difference is post kangaroo neuron what neurotransmitters the naylet release sympathetic nervous system releases noradrenaline parasympathetic nervous system releases acetylcholine again and the receptors for the parasympathetic nervous system and the organ is going to be muscarinic and for the sympathetic nervous system it's going to be adrenergic so know that all right now the sympathetic nervous system if you take I'll rub this out where does it exit the body all right so where do these neurons exit the body for the sympathetic versus parasympathetic it's easy but don't forget it I draw the brain up for the sympathetic nervous system all those first preganglionic neurons come out of the thoracic or lumbar region right between thoracolumbar that's the sympathetic nervous system parasympathetic nervous system or the neurons preganglionic neurons come out of the cranial region or the sacral region and that's termed craniosacral parasympathetic nervous system alright what else do we need to know okay if you logical stimulation of the receptors you do need to know this when you look at the sympathetic nervous system fight-or-flight we look at the adrenergic receptors there's a couple of different types you need to know you've got alpha 1 beta 1 alpha 2 beta 2 now there's a beta 3 don't worry about it's found only in fat cells section them off like this then right if you hit these with adrenaline stimulates them if you hit these with adrenaline it inhibits now where are they located and we can determine what they do so alpha 1 lets that be the 1 beta 2 beta 1 is found in the heart beta 2 is found in the lungs or Airways right Oh 4 1 is going to be found on all smooth muscle and glands right alpha 2 is presynaptic membrane firstly don't stress about that one for the exam but know these ones so that means if I throw adrenaline and alpha 1 it's stimulating all my smooth muscle therefore smooth muscle on my peripheral blood vessels vasculature going to constrict shunting the blood inwards that's important for fight-or-flight because it wants to move that blood to areas like my skeletal muscles where the blood vessels will dilate that's going to be in control of actually that one to be honest and then all the blood goes in if you throw a dremel in at b21 the heart's gonna contract scan increases contractile force increase at speed that's what happens when you throw drilling because it's stimulatory throw adrenaline a better term it's inhibitory it relaxes the airwaves they open up more air can come in and out don't forget that all right we get in there endocrine system alright that with the nervous system explain the different types of hormones control the secretion mechanism of action and at receptors explain the structural okay so first thing is this different types of receptors and different types of stimulation so how can you stimulate hormones to be released from endocrine glands so you can have neural stimulus hormonal stimulus and humoral stimulus neural stimulus is when neurons stimulate hormones to be released hormonal stimulus is when other hormones stimulate hormones to be released general stimulus is when products in the blood stimulate hormones to be released so for example neural stimulus is when a neuron for example activates the adrenaline the adrenal gland right releases hormones hormonal stimulus is when one hormone goes to the bloodstream tells another gland to release hormones these topics and humoral is when there's product in the blood like glucose glucose can stimulate hormones be released from the pancreas all right let's look at the pituitary gland and hypothalamus the base of the brain the hypothalamus was and you're gonna have two connections there you're gonna have the pituitary gland one's going to be anterior one's going to be posterior then the posterior pituitary gland is directly connected anterior pituitary gland is not there is actually nerves that go from the hypothalamus to the posterior pituitary gland which means the posterior pituitary gland is nearly stimulated to release its hormones it produced an actual fact hypothalamus will produce the hormones that the posterior pituitary gland hold and release these are ADH and oxytocin ADH antidiuretic hormone tells us to not pee hold on to the water oxytocin stimulates labor contractions and also stimulates the milk ejection when it comes to the anterior pituitary gland there is a vascular to supply there's blood vessels that actually come down to stimulate it which means they produce and secrete their own but only in response to the hypothalamus which means the hypothalamus must release a hormone that travels through this and it's got a hormonal stimulus one of the hormones at the anterior pituitary gland producing release but prolactin prolactin plays important role with milk production we've got adrenocorticotropic hormone travels to the adrenal gland tells it to release mineralocorticoids and and critically their own for example you've got growth hormone you've got thyroid stimulating hormone and you've got the gun out of trunk in which a follicle stimulating hormone and luteinizing hormone okay so for the exam what do you need to know for these you need to understand what's being produced by each and the function okay next part that we need to go through any other questions let's go check the Facebook page okay so Helen the major effects of hormones released from the anterior pituitary dam at firing and parathyroid we've done parathyroid thyroid hormone or thyroid releasing hormone that's t3 t4 t3 t4 the number tells you how many iodine molecules are attached and their main major function is that for metabolism you have more thyroid hormone increasing metabolic activity that means increased increased weight loss and also heat production sweating so forth and the opposite happens for low thyroid adrenal gland it releases adrenaline that's in the medulla in the cortex it releases the mineralocorticoids like aldosterone plays an important role for holding on to sodium which holds on the fluid and in the cortex got mineral sorry the corticosteroid the steroids like cortisol for example which gets released in times of stress relaxes the immune system but also what it does is it can stimulate the adrenal cortex and go to the brain and tell a whole bunch of other hormones to be released and the pancreas which releases blood glucose levels alone pancreas will release insulin when blood glucose levels all the way around I'm so stupid when blood glucose levels a higher releases insulin low glucose levels a low releases glucagon insulin and the keys open the door of the cells for glucose to come in glucagon tells the liver to start breaking down the glucose as well glucose that's stored in the form of glycogen it's released perfect alright nearly there how long will day an hour 40 minutes that's way too long muscular system okay when we look at the school system what do we need to know compare and contrast the physiological difference between the three types of muscles well we've already done that and we look at three types of muscles you're going to have smooth which looks like a spindle or an eye it's go single nuclei you're gonna be skeletal she's cylindrical can have one or more nuclei and you're going to have cardiac which is branched like that let's branch because other cardiac cells are attached to it like that and it can be one or more nuclei then the skeletal and cardiac is striated smooth is not it's called smooth because it's not strated the striations and the filaments that are inside that tells the muscles to contract over the contractile filaments I'll talk about those in a second okay well on the physiological processes regulating transmission at the neuromuscular Junction all right similar to what we spoke about before you're gonna have a neuron and this time it's going to sign-ups not with another neuron but it's going to sign up with the skeletal muscle now skeletal muscle has these tubules those tubules lead to the endoplasmic reticulum equivalent for the sacrifice make a particular it's a little storage units and they're filled with calcium right and inside you're gonna have all these filaments they need to cross over each other first what happens is this the sodium through the action potential jump it into the neuron we know this to get to the end it opens up voltage-gated channels for calcium we know this that releases all the vesicles containing neurotransmitter in this case it's acetylcholine so now acetylcholine is released into this son left this for the neuromuscular Junction it must bind to acetylcholine receptors once it does it opens channels for sodium again and more sodium rushes in this time sodium rushes in along the membrane now we want to tell the deep fibers of the muscle to contract but because it's membrane potentials it's only happening at the membrane so how do we get deep in well we need to go down these t tubules so now the sodium diffuses down these T tubules and once it gets down hits the sarcoplasmic reticulum filled with calcium and all the calcium is now released sodium then calcium sodium then calcium once calcium is released it can now tell now tell the skeletal muscle to contract how does this happen this is the next part you're going to have thin and thick filaments within muscle and what you've got is myosin and actin myosin have these golf-club looking things it's got these bodies with these so it's got this what looks like a club with the head of the club and they've got binding pockets on the actin now the thing is this the actin is all bound up there's a chain around it and this chain like a bike chain has a lock on it this lock needs to be unlocked in order for the chain to move away great thing is and first thing this lock is good troponin the chain is called tropomyosin and once calcium has been released from what I said earlier calcium comes along it unlocks tropomyosin so calcium's the key to unlock the lock Chapa myosin disappears the bike chain falls away and now what we've got is open actin which now these myosin heads combine to so calcium is the key unlock the troponin for the Chapa myosin to fall away now binding can happen how does binding happen we need ATP this is basically what happens you've got the actin and the myosin heads now ATP comes along binds to the myosin head and splits to ADP and phosphate that the head into position and binds then the ADP the phosphate disappears and it moves now what needs to happen is we need more ATP to release that myosin head all right so ATP comes along and binds to the myosin head it pops off then it splits into a DP and phosphate and its head again and binds and then falls away and moves more ATP is required so what do we need 80 people we need ATP to the and finding contraction but then we need more ATP to release this is what happens in rigor mortis after death all this calcium is released it's all the tropomyosin and myosin fall away then the ATP that's present allows for contraction to occur but then all the ATP runs out when ATP runs out there's no ATP to unlock that head so the muscle stay contracted so what happens with ATP ATP is required to the myosin head bind and contract all right remember that calcium unlocks the chains for it to happen unlocks troponin and tropomyosin ATP is there for the contraction itself all right and then next one is identify major clinically relevant scalar muscles that's up to you go through the list hematology and immunology you're out we're nearly there first thing most important thing you need to know is with the hematocrit Maddock root is going to be the blood I'll to take some of your blood spin it down you're gonna have these different layers alright now these different layers are going to be plasma white blood cells and platelets and then you're gonna have the red blood cells plasma is the majority make sure you know the percentages for each what percentage sits within each that's important that's called a hematocrit next thing that you need to know is hemostasis again don't get this mixed up with homeostasis right you need hemostasis now for hemostasis so hemostasis what we need is the three different phases of hemostasis first is vascular spasm second is platelet plug third is clot formation so remember you cut yourself hemostasis means let's stop the bleeding you cut yourself to stop the bleeding first of all the blood vessel constricts that's bascule or spasm second thing is because you've cut the vessel because all these free collagen fibers now is free collagen fibers are sticky and platelet comes along as sticks to it more platelets more stickiness more platelets more stickiness forms a little platelet plug further stopping bleeding platelets will release whole bunch of chemicals that trigger fibrinogen to turn the fibrin which are fine fibers that then form a final clot that's hemostasis make sure you know that all right blood groups or blood groups what do you need to know remember you're going to have a B and O a can be positive or it can be a negative B can be B positive will be negative oh it can be a positive or a negative but you can also have a be positive and a be negative you need to know who can donate blood to who he can accept blood from definitely questions in the exam asking you if you're for example a B+ who can you give blood to well who else can accept that the way you remember it is this if I give you a question saying somebody is a B+ who can they give blood to just remember if you're a B+ you will create antibodies against everything you are not if you're a B+ there's nothing you don't have which means you can accept everyone's blood because your body will not react to it alright but if you're a B+ and you're delivering blood to somebody the only other person that can take your blood is another a B+ person because if they're anything else they're going to create antibodies against you alright so just remember that work it through like that describe a structural and functional aspects of lymph lymph nodes and live organs main thing you need to know here is the difference between primary and secondary lymph organs primary versus secondary primary lymph organs is going to be the thymus and it's going to be the bone marrow that's it Farmar spreads t-cells bone marrow create b-cells secondary level organs include the lymph nodes include the spleen include the mult patches within our intestines include our tonsils there's all secondary lymphatic structures know the difference all right innate versus adaptive immunity the difference between Nate versus adaptive innate doesn't change doesn't change its response it's always the same adaptive changes depending on what's invading adaptive predominately is going to be the B cells T cells the ad make is going to be things like inflammation fever skin mucus some basic chemicals some cells like macrophages doesn't matter what's invading you these will always be released and do the exact same thing so it's innate adaptive they get released depending on what's coming in their b-cells turn into plasma cells and they turn into antibodies right t-cells you can have helper cells or cytotoxic simply put bacteria is invading this will do whatever it can if it doesn't work at least the macrophages will have engulf some bacteria release some antigens these antigens will be picked up by the help of t-cells they will call in the play of the B cells which return to plasma cells produce antibodies specifically against that bacteria or virus right some toxic T cells then will go along and find any antibodies that are bound to any of these bacteria viruses and just kill them off straight away all right and then the last thing you need to know before my voice falls away and disappears is this you need to know the difference between mmm we're a passive and active immunity passive immunity okay let's do active first it says active immunity is when you create the antibodies against antigens you've been exposed to passive is you receive the antibodies from somebody else who has already made them someone or something else all right so passive you're receiving the antibodies they've already been made active is you're creating the antibodies yourself after exposure and there's different types is artificial and natural run so natural passive will be like a baby with breast milk they're getting antibodies at their mums mode artificial is going to be when you inject serum into somebody that contains antibodies it's not that common but it happens with those who are immunocompromised when you can't expose them to the antigen they may get even more sick so you give them the serum it doesn't last very long doesn't have a lifetime immunity active also has natural natural is when you get the flu right someone exposed some sneezes in your face and exposes you to the antigen you create the antibodies then you've got the artificial this is just vaccines all right I'm gonna have to stop because I'm losing my voice these are the learning outcomes thank you everybody sorry it took so long but there's a lot of learning outcomes for the course best of luck for the exam

Channel: Dr Matt & Dr Mike

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Id: 3zRhdPo0Bb4

Length: 82min 54sec (4974 seconds)

Published: Mon May 27 2019