Hi I’m John Green and this is Crash Course
European History. So, last week we took a break from religion
to show that amidst warfare and bitter controversy over doctrine, people were inventing and innovating
and enslaving. Europeans were eating new foods, hanging out
more in cities, and making advances in commerce and legal protections for some people. While also inventing systems of oppression
to enslave others. Years ago, historians firmly believed that
the Protestant religion promoted capitalism—that is, all the business and commerce that were
springing up at the time were caused by the Reformation. Some historians still find that Martin Luther’s
other worldly interests expanded to this-worldly activities, like reading, in ways that boosted
prosperity, but the rise of capitalism was complex, and also it happened in non-Protestant
communities. So today, let’s shift perspectives back
to how the Catholics were handling all this. Were they ready to simply surrender their
influence in European society? Did the Church just turn its back on this
momentous challenge of Protestantism and continue down its much criticized path? No. They responded. Leaders and the faithful created a sturdy,
even strident Catholic-Reformation, or Counter-Reformation, that also provided a little grease to the
wheels of commerce. And today we’re gonna look at the Catholic
Reformation and how it influenced not just Europe but the world. INTRO The task of reform fell to Pope Paul III,
who like many Renaissance popes lived in the lap of luxury and engaged in corrupt practices
such as appointing two of his grandsons cardinals in their early teens. He only hired the best people. Also, why does this pope have grandsons? That reminds me of the great last words of
the Irish poet, Brendan Behan. A nun was giving him an injection, and he
turned to her and said, “bless you sister. May all your sons be bishops.” Then he died. But Pope Paul III knew, partly because of
external pressure, that the Catholic Church needed to shape up. Several attempts at undertaking reforms in
formal meetings were blocked by powerful individuals who liked the status quo. Powerful individuals and the status quo: The
greatest love story of this or any time. But the church was tired of seeing its overall
power decrease, and so in 1545, the Council of Trent, composed of high church officials,
assembled to stop the Protestant momentum. And this council continued until 1563, a series
of meetings that lasted so long that by the time it was over, both Pope Paul III and his
successor Julius III had died. I’ve definitely had meetings that felt like
they were 18 years long. I’m not sure if they were, though. So, among the adherents to Protestantism were
some of the most powerful princes and members of the nobility in Europe. And some Catholic leaders wanted those powerful
Protestants on their side. But eventually the council eventually decided
not to compromise. Instead, the pronouncements of the Council
of Trent were stark and emphatic. Already in 1542 while waiting for a council
actually to get organized, the papacy had expanded the work of the Inquisition, which
had been established in the 13th century to stamp out heresies in southern France and
Italy. But now the Inquisition targeted Protestants
and searched for heresy also among conquered people in the New World. The Council also affirmed principles of transubstantiation—that
is, the belief that the blood and wine of the communion sacrament become the actual
body and blood of Jesus. It upheld the centrality of the seven sacraments,
and the selling of indulgences stuck around too. Clergy were to remain celibate and chaste--unlike
most Protestant clerics. And all Catholics were to live by faith /and/
practice good works as their path to salvation—not by faith alone like the Protestants. The church also began establishing seminaries
where priests could become more informed in Catholic theology. And reformers felt this training was sorely
needed for priests because they were being confronted by complicated Protestant challenges
to Catholic doctrine. And the Church began the Papal Index, a list
of books that Catholics were forbidden to read; In addition the Church reached deeper
into society when it began to further regulate marriages. With the creation of a list of forbidden books
and the declaration of power over marriage, the Counter-Reformation took Catholicism from
a point of weakness and actually expanded its power. At least over those who believed. Even before these events, what would become
a major bulwark of Catholicism and its Counter-Reformation was taking shape. Because in the 1520s, after being shot as
a soldier in one of Spain’s wars, a Spanish nobleman took up the challenge to fortify
Catholicism. Just as Luther wrestled with his faith, Ignatius
of Loyola suffered spiritual agonies and emerged a charismatic leader--but unlike Luther, Ignatius
and his followers remained loyal to the Catholic Church. In 1540, the Pope declared Ignatius’s followers
a religious order called the Society of Jesus or “Jesuits.” Many pre-existing Catholic religious orders
were rededicating themselves to protect and nourish their faith. But Loyola’s approach was especially effective
given the challenges from Protestantism in the 1520s and thereafter. First, because he organized and ran his group
like an army around a hierarchy of command; joining required several years of training
and a strict code of discipline. And all of this was timely given the Church’s
reputation for corruption, lax morals, and in many cases, priestly incompetence, including
ignorance of Latin. That wasn’t a problem with the Jesuits. Second, the Jesuits founded schools where
humanistic education thrived alongside religious instruction. These became a mechanism for combining the
latest in intellectual practice with the revitalization and reaffirmation of Catholic theology, and
it was important because one of the attractions of Protestantism was its emphasis on broader
literacy so that everyone could directly connect with scripture. The Jesuits argued that Catholics could also
spread education--which is why incidentally there are so many Loyola Universities around
the world. And that brings us to our final point: In
addition to reforming Catholicism in Europe, the Jesuits undertook globalizing the faith
as a regular part of their mission. Through them, Catholicism truly did become
a world religion, reaching India, and Japan, and Africa, and the New World. And this Jesuit activism in establishing global
relationships would eventually transform Europe in ways that have only recently gained the
attention of historians. Let’s go to the Thought Bubble. The Jesuits interacted worldwide with an eye
on both short and long-term results--they wanted to convert souls, but they also wanted
through schools to shape the way that young people learned, and thus their perspective. It’s important to remember that no education
is morally neutral--what you learn about shapes the way you look at the world. And as they traveled, the Jesuits were in
constant touch with one another comparing best practices, and they also adapted different
strategies to different parts of the world as their order spread across the globe. They studied local languages before approaching
people and in many cases took elements from local beliefs and tried to persuade those
they wished to convert that Catholic beliefs were basically identical to local ones. And it was effective. In China, there were 38,000 converts to Catholicism
by 1633. By 1650, there were over a hundred thousand. Once the Jesuits established these global
contacts, they produced reports, first in Latin but then translated into local European
languages, and their work created a Eurocentric globalization that went way beyond religion. For example, they became an early version
of industrial spies when it came to producing porcelain, reporting back from China to Europe
about the processes that went in to making high-quality porcelain. Spreading Catholicism was their mission, but
the Jesuits were among those advancing commercial and agricultural development as well. Thanks, Thought Bubble. Many Catholics really took the Church’s
reforms to heart, intensifying their devotions, sometimes in ways that also helped further
the religion’s influence around the world. Among the most renowned was the Spanish mystic
and nun Saint Teresa of Avila, who had a very long birth name that I will not attempt to
pronounce. I mean, mispronouncing things is my thing,
but there’s no reason to go down that road. At twenty, she escaped the confines of her
home where she was recuperating from one of her many, and lifelong, bouts of illness to
join the Carmelite order of nuns. But once there, she balked at the superficiality
and high society life of constant visits and fancy food. She began to live out the reformed Church’s
rededication to faith and good works, being extremely strict in her practice. She was a proponent of self-flagellation ceremonies--self-flagellation
being the act of hitting one’s self with a whip in imitation of Christ’s suffering
at the cross. And she became an inspiration particularly
after church leaders had her write down her spiritual experiences in several books that
have now become Counter-Reformation classics, such as Way of Perfection and The Book of
Foundations. At the same time, she went about founding
new “discalceate” (shoeless or barefoot) Carmelite religious orders, restoring austerity
and strictness to religious life. The Council of Trent had also issued a statement
about art, advising that it needed to connect with ordinary people, including the poor. The aim was not to produce subtle or erudite
symbolism but to strike emotions, inducing awe and evoking the power and majesty of the
divine. [[TV St Peters Square]]
Gian Lorenzo Bernini produced such effects, for example in the piazza in front of St.
Peter’s Basilica. It features massed columns, which produce
a dramatic setting for papal ritual. Protestants had smashed ornate statuary of
saints and the holy family and instead created simple, unadorned places of worship. But Catholics embraced majestic religious
interiors, enhancing religious figures through the use of light and shade in paintings of
Jesus, angels, saints, and the royalty surrounding the divine--
All of which were part of a new style called baroque. Did the world just open? Is there a tiny little baby Jesus dressed
up fancy back there? Indeed, it is the Infant of Prague, or at
least a three dollar recreation of it... So you can see here, this baby Jesus is in
a very fancy dress, and I...listen...if I were a tiny baby Jesus, I would wear this
fancy dress, but if you’ve read the gospels, you’ll know that like, this is not how tiny
baby Jesus dressed. It is, however, super baroque, emphasizing
the majesty of the divine. And religious statuary like this also expressed
the intensity of the Counter-Reformation and its leading figures. Bernini’s statue of St. Teresa of Avila,
for instance, would seem to contradict the asceticism of rejecting ones shoes. Yet it expressed the ecstatic relationship
with the divine and an overflow of feeling and belief. Likewise, baroque music expressed complexity
through the use of counterpoint and emotional and thunderous chords that filled parishioners—both
illiterate and learned--with religious awe. One artist who took up the baroque style,
some would say with a vengeance, was Artemisia Gentileschi. Trained by her father, Orazio, Gentileschi
was raped by a man who’d been hired to give her additional instruction. She herself was tortured with thumbscrews
by the court in order to ensure that she was telling the truth when her father brought
suit against the rapist. One of the few ways to get revenge...painting. The frightening “Judith Slaying Holofernes”
for instance shows the biblical heroine and her maid getting revenge on the general Holofernes
who threatened her people’s survival. From the dramatic imagery to the high contrast
of dark and light, this painting is exemplary of counter-reformation art--it evokes the
senses and an emotional connection to God’s word, and it ain’t subtle. So, between the Reformation and the Counter-Reformation,
people obsessively confronted some of the major issues of human existence, right? Faith, the divine, and the human conduct that
should accompany religious belief, and we’re still not finished with the repercussions
of this questioning and the responses to it. These religious upheavals weren’t just about
how to get into heaven; they were also about who should learn and how, and what constituted
an effective human life. We are still in the shadow of those who modeled
new ideas of what matters in human life We’ll have much more to say about Catholicism
and the role of organized religion in people’s lives, but first….next week we dig into
the world of witchcraft, shamans, magic, and alchemy, which were also important belief
systems in early modern Europe and ones that co-existed with Christianity. That’s right, friends, it will soon be time
to turn lead into gold and frog eyes into hex potions. I’ll see you then.
