Bacterial Genetics

what's up ninja nerds in this video we're going to be talking about bacterial genetics but before we get started if you guys really want to be able to understand this topic down in the description box below we'll have a link to our website on our website we have comprehensive notes we have illustrations before everything's filled on the board and then we have all the illustrations after everything's filled out on the board it's gonna help you guys to truly understand this topic so go check that out also if you guys like this video you benefit from it please hit that like button comment down in the comment section and most importantly subscribe all right let's get into it all right engineers so when we talk about uh bacterial genetics the the process by which bacteria actually replicate it's a very simple process right you take one bacterial sediment and make two bacterial cells and then you just basically replicate their circular dna what is that process called which you take one bacteria prokaryotic cell and then replicate it into two prokaryotic or bacterial cells we call that like mitosis right but there's a special term that we actually give that for bacteria and it's called binary fission now this is a cool process because again it's a way that we can you know pass on the actual same genetic material or dna from one cell to two cells the only downside to this is that these dna molecules are all the same there's no differences there's no genetic variability there's no genetic diversity so how do we diversify the actual dna within bacteria how do we do how do we do that well there's four particular mechanisms one is called bacterial conjugation the second one is called bacterial transformation we'll talk about all of these in great detail the third one is called bacterial transduction and last but not least is what's called bacterial transposition okay so these are the ways by which we can diversify right so this is the ways by which we can diversify the bacterial dna okay that's important so now let's talk about each one of these mechanisms let's go into detail about it and let's talk about like the significance of those mechanisms all right so let's talk about conjugation conjugation is a very interesting way by which again bacteria can kind of change up the dna from bacterial cell to bacterial cell how does it do this well one of the mechanisms we're going to talk about is this concept of fertility factor it's a really cool concept so let's say here i have a bacterial cell this bacterial cell is what's called an f positive bacterial cell meaning it has the fertility factor and i'll explain what that means it means it has the ability to produce something called a sex pilus this bacteria does not have the ability to produce a sex pills right now so therefore it's f negative and again the f is just standing for fertility factor or the ability to produce a sex pills now how do i know what the heck all of this stuff is in the bacteria real simple here is this blue stuff here and this circular kind of structure here this is our dna and this is like the chromosomal dna we'll just put like c for chromosomal dna this right here this circular kind of maroon structure here this is called a plasmid and plasmid is basically like an extra chromosomal dna okay now this plasmid has different genes on it that when transcribed and transmitted it can make particular proteins you know one of those proteins are it's proteins that make a tube that can branch between one bacterial cell to another bacterial cell so you know what happens here is this plasma let's say here's the plasmid and on that plasma there's a particular gene sequence like right here when that gene sequence gets transcribed and translated it makes a particular protein tube and that protein tube is called a sex pilus right so now let's actually show here a little tube connecting between this f positive cell and the f minus cell so look here's going to be a tube now that's connecting between these two bacterial cells the f positive cell and the f minus cell okay and again the only thing that makes it f positive is the plasmid which has the ability to have a gene to make the sex pilus so that's the first step so the first step here is basically utilizing the f positive cell it's plasmid to make a sex pillars connecting the f positive cell to the f negative cell that's the first step what happens in the second step the second step now is we should still have this pilots here that's connecting the f positive cell and the f negative cell right that should still be here here's our f positive cell here's our f negative cell now what's really interesting is that this plasmid it's dna what can you do with dna to make more dna you can replicate it so what that actual f-positive cell does is is it replicates and makes another plasmid so it takes the dna here here's our plasmid and it replicates it makes a new plasmid okay so it's going to undergo this process called dna replication where we take this plasmid which has particular genes maybe that gene is for actually making the sex pilots and it's going to undergo that replication process now that we've made another plasmid and we have this little tube connecting the f positive cell to the f minus cell what can i do pass that plasmid over to the f minus cell now what's the result so again the second step here is actually replicating the dna of the plasmid and then passing that plasmid over to the f minus cell what do i have now over here well i just replicated my plasma so i still have that plasmid that was the previous one but now there should be a plasmid also present in this cell and there was the sex pilus that was basically connecting them eventually this will start breaking down or depolymerizing but now what do we have as a result of all this i have an f positive cell because it has that plasma with the ability to produce a sex pillus and what do i have now i have another bacterial cell that at one point in time didn't have dna that allowed for it to make a sex palace but now it does through this process of conjugation okay that is an example there of that conjugative process all right so there's a similar concept with this conjugation it's just a teensy bit different there's another kind of conjugation process besides this sex pill is kind of passing on and replicating the plasmid dna and passing that whole plasmid off to another bacterial cell it's a little bit different so this first step here is let's say here this first step we have again what kind of cells here we have a bacterial cell and this is the dna the chromosomal dna right so this is the bacterial chromosomal dna and then this is the plasmid which is the extra chromosomal dna this one doesn't have it this one does and let's say that that plasmid contains genes that can make proteins that can connect one cell to another via sax pilus that makes this f positive and this one does not have that plasmid it's therefore f minus okay now what happens here is something really interesting the plasmid says hey chromosomal dna i want to take some of my dna and incorporate it into some of the chromosomal dna so that's what it does the first step is we actually take so imagine here we have this circular dna which is the plasmid and then you have the chromosomal dna all i want to do is mix these two together i want this plasma dna to be incorporated with inside of the actual chromosomal dna so as a result of that you get something like this now i have here my bacterial dna which is the chromosomal dna particularly and i have mixed into that the plasma dna now something is very different now about this cell this cell took its f plasmid or the the plasmid that contained the fertility factor on it and incorporated it into the actual chromosomal dna you know we call this bacterial cell now we call this a high frequency recombinant cell you're like what the heck that's what we call them it's a high frequency recombinant cell so it's basically a bacterial cell with chromosomal dna and actual plasmid dna that contains the fertility factor incorporated into the actual chromosomal dna that's a high frequency recombinant cell this bacterial cell still doesn't have any kind of plasmid that contains the fertility factor so it's just an f minus cell now here's the next thing that happens in the second step the second step of this conjugation mechanism you have that plasmid dna right and if you imagined imagine here that we actually kind of we drew this plasmid and chromosomal dna combined so here i have all of this dna that's combined on that plasmid dna which is incorporated into the chromosomal dna it has genes that can still make the sex pilots because it still has that plasmid there if it decides to make proteins that'll actually lead to a nice tube connecting the hfr cell or the high frequency recombination cell to the f minus cell it'll do that via the formation of a sex pillus via the genes on the plasmid that's incorporated into that dna now we have this sex pill is connecting between the high frequency recombination cell and the f minus cell then what happens is here's where it gets really interesting i'm going to take some of the actual dna from the plasmid and some of the dna from the bacterial chromosome and actually transfer some of that over via the sex pills i'm not going to transfer all the entire plasma dna i'm going to transfer some of the plasma dna and some of the actual chromosomal dna and so as a result some of that actually gets passed over and you get something like this that gets passed over you get maybe like a little piece of bacterial dna and a little piece of plasmid dna that gets crossed over via the sex post not the entire plasmid now as a result after you pass over that kind of mixture of plasmid dna and bacterial dna what's the result out of this okay well you're still going to have a high frequency recombinant cell here so it's still going to be a high frequency recombinant cell and you're still going to have an f minus cell because this f minus cell didn't get all of the plasmid and therefore it actually didn't get the genes necessary to be able to make a sex pill so therefore it's f minus but it did get some of the plasmid dna and it did get some of the bacterial dna so it also has some of that plasmid dna and some of the bacterial dna but it doesn't have the portion of the plasma dna that allows for it to be able to make the sex pilots so therefore it is an f minus cell but it has some differences in its dna from previously so it underwent recombination but not high frequency so we call this a recombinant a recombinant f minus cell that is another example of the conjugation process you're probably like why do i need to know all of this stuff what is what is what's the purpose of this zach don't worry i gotcha what is really really cool about this with the plasmids is not only their ability to make a sex pills right so one of the concepts here is that they can make that sex post but you know on that plasmid something very interesting it may contain a very specific type of gene so say that i zoom in on that plasmid and let's say that we have this plasma and it has a very particular gene and this gene when it's transcribed makes kind of an rna and then it gets translated and makes a protein and this protein that it makes is very interesting and it's called a beta lactamase you know what beta-lactamase does beta-lactamase basically inhibits you have like for example penicillin penicillin is a is a beta-lactam antibiotic it has a beta-lactam ring within it if you take a penicillin and it interacts with this beta-lactamase it basically breaks down and inhibits penicillin's efficacy and therefore won't be able to exert its antibiotic effects on that bacteria right that's one of the interesting things about this plasmid so if i took bacteria and i put them into a like let's say a plate and i put some penicillin on that plate this bacteria if it has the plasmid that contains that gene it would survive despite the penicillin being there but this one would it no so what if [Music] this conjugation process allows for me to take a bacteria that's nearby on like an actual kind of like a plate like a let's say a petri dish and i put these bacteria in the actual petri dish and i put some penicillin in that area if possible this bacteria which has that plasmid to produce the beta-lactamase may make a sex pileus and pass that actual plasmid dna over now this bacteria may have the plasma dna to make the beta lactamase and help it become resistant to the penicillin antibiotics so this is an interesting concept where conjugation can become involved in antibiotic resistance and passing on genetic material from one cell to another enhancing their evolution and adaptation process all right beautiful let's talk about transformation all right so the next type of bacterial genetic mechanism that we're going to talk about is transformation so transformation is actually a very simple process so it's the process by which we take dna from kind of a basically the extracellular environment and take it into a bacterial cell and then incorporate it into that bacterial dna so let's say that we take for example here we have a bacterial cell and let's kind of term this bacterial cell a a harmful yeah let's see let's call this as a harmful type of bacterial cell right and let's say here this bacterial cell which has the blue dna is harmless so in other words it doesn't really have the ability to cause like a lot of damage to the host cell or tissue cells if i take put this like for example let's say it's in the body or yeah let's actually use that example see if it sits in the body this bacterial cell gets into the person's body and actually you know the immune system is able to destroy some of those bacterial cells it destroys some of these actual bacterial cells these harmful ones when they're destroyed they can release out some of their actual chromosomal dna and some of it may get broken down and fragmented but the result of that is that out here in the extracellular space you have some of this actual chromosomal dna from the harmful bacteria this harmless bacteria which is in close proximity if it is competent so if it is a harmless bacteria that is competent meaning it's capable of taking up this actual extracellular dna from another bacterial cell it will then take up this actual we'll call this naked dna we're going to call this kind of the naked dna from the harmful bacteria it's going to get taken up into this bacterial cell when it gets taken up into this bacterial cell some of that actual naked dna parts of it may be incorporated into the dna of this other bacteria so what would that look like as a result as a result you may have something like this now i have a bacteria which is basically this was a previously kind of a harmless bacteria we're going to use that term harmless bacteria with what now dna with dna from harmful bacteria you're like i don't know why why is this important zach don't worry guys i got you okay you know what the problem is is that harmful bacteria they're not harmful just because that's that's their their natural innate ability it's based upon the actual dna itself the dna is able to be transcribed translated and then make proteins and those proteins are able to cause negative damaging types of effects on different types of host cells well guess what i picked up some of the dna from that harmful bacteria and i just incorporated into this actual dna of the harmless bacteria it may have the ability to make proteins now that are damaging and nasty in nature so now as a result of this let's say that we take this bacteria now we have this bacteria it has its original dna but now a part of it is the dna from the harmful bacteria now that harmful kind of like dna that we can say it may have genes and those genes when transcribed to make rna is then translated and makes proteins and these proteins that they make can be really nasty they can produce devastating types of effects so they may produce very harmful types of proteins and some of these proteins may be exotoxins and that is the big thing to remember okay what i want you guys to take away from this is what type of bacteria because this is definitely going to show up on your exam what type of bacteria have the ability to produce this transformation process allowing for them to become competent take up dna and then make nasty proteins as a response from that all right so what is the significance of this transformation process we have to remember there is particular types of bacteria and you will get asked this on your exam that have the ability to do this transformation process and make harmful types of proteins or exotoxins that can cause devastating effects and it can really kick in the shin you know that's actually kind of a helpful mnemonic and i'll show you how that mnemonic works so you have three particular types of bacteria the s in the shin is streptococcus pneumoniae the hi in the shin is homopholus influenza and particularly type b and the third one is nesaria meningitidis these are the three particular types of bacteria that you want to remember perform this type of transformation process let's now move on to transduction all right the next type of mechanisms by which we can actually diversify or kind of cause changes within the bacterial dna is this process called transduction and there's two types generalize and specialize and we'll give you examples for a very very high yield to remember for your exams for specialized transduction all right so how does this process work transduction is basically a way that we can transfer or change up or diversify dna through the kind of a carrier or vector and this is via a bacteriophage so we had conjugation we passed it on through a pilus we had transformations we had a bacterial cell take up the dna extracellularly and then the third one which is transduction is we have some type of kind of vehicle or vector that's going between bacterial cell to bacterial cell via a bacteriophage okay so generalized transduction let's say here i have a bacteriophage a bacteriophage is basically this is just kind of a virus and inside of it it has dna okay so this is what we call a bacterial phage so it's basically just a virus with its own dna that likes to infect other bacteria and then basically help to take make more bacteriophages and passed on genetic material we'll explain what all that means okay ready here we have this bacterial phase let's say it binds on to this bacteria right so it binds on latches onto this bacterial cell and when it latches onto this bacterial cell it injects in some of its actual dna which is like a viral dna but we like to call this phage dna it's just viral dna so here i inject in that viral dna what is it again it's viral dna but sometimes we also use the term phage dna okay now that's the first step the first step is i use a bacteriophage which has viral dna or phage dna and have it bind onto a bacteria and inject that actual phage dna in once the phage dna is inside of this bacterial cell it uses particular types of enzymes and proteins and basically it'll replicate and make more phage dna it'll also make particular proteins and enzymes that'll actually help to break down and segment apart some of the actual bacterial dna and it'll also utilize some of its genes to make particular types of proteins that will be helpful in replicating some of those actual viral particles or in this case the bacteriophages so three things as a result of this happen one is you actually use that phage dna or viral dna to make more make proteins that'll enable it to make more of these bacteriophages and the third one is release enzymes that break down and segment depart some of the bacterial dna so what does it look like afterwards from that effect so the effect of this is you're going to have in different parts and different areas of this bacterial cell you'll have some of these kind of proteins which we call capsids they'll be surrounding what things well some of the capsids will surround some of the phage dna or viral dna and some of the particles some of these capsid particles will be surrounding some of the bacterial dna but either way i have some of that actual dna here of bacterial dna involved within these capsid proteins and some of the actual phage dna incorporated within these capsid proteins as a result this is just going to continue to keep happening and eventually you're going to have something like this eventually you're going to have so many different types of bacteriophages that are being made within side of this bacterial cell there's just going to be tons of them and they're going to keep in continuing continuing to replicate and replicate and replicate and again some of them are going to have phage dna and some of them are going to have the bacterial dna from that original bacteria what's going to happen is you're going to accumulate so many of these viral particles that eventually it's going to lead to the lysis or the popping of this bacterial cell when it pops it starts releasing out these phage particles these bacteriophages some of the bacteriophages again contain what phage dna or viral dna and some of them contain bacterial dna which one do you think i actually really care about i actually care about the bacterial dna because that's the one that i want to pass from this bacterial cell to this other bacterial cell so now look i pop this this little guy out i pop out that bacteriophage now with inside of this bacterial phage i'm going to have some bacterial dna from this other bacterial cell we'll call that bacterial cell number one this is the bacterial cell number two i'm going to use this bacteriophage and inject in what the actual bacterial dna that bacterial dna now is going to do what it is then going to get incorporated into this actual bacterial dna here and from that if that happens i'm now going to have as a result of this a bacteria which contains its own bacterial dna and a mixture of bacterial dna from another type of bacterial cell making it different giving it variability giving it genetic diversity allowing for it to maybe have genes there that allow for it to make proteins that could be potentially harmful or make it resistant in some way shape or form so it's a really cool process by which this generalized transduction can occur alright so let's talk about the second type of transduction specialized transduction very cool process almost the same as generalized for the like the most part there's just a couple like idiosyncratic details that we have to differentiate okay so here we have our bacteriophage same thing as before the bacteriophage is basically a virus that contains phage dna and it just likes to infect other bacteria it transmits you know dna from bacteria to bacteria so this is our bacteriophage and inside of that bacterial phage we have that kind of maroon colored dna that is phage dna or viral dna it's going to bind to the bacteria and inject that in that's the first step so it binds and injects the actual viral dna or phage dna into the bacteria the second step is that that phage dna or viral dna that we inject in remember how in generalized it actually would get transcribed translated make proteins enzymes that break down and segment the dna it would then also replicate itself and it would also make capsid proteins well what this one does is is it takes and gets directly incorporated right into the bacterial dna straight in it goes baby and as a result of that within this next kind of view here we're going to have this bacterial dna and incorporated into it is going to be the phage dna or the viral dna and you know what's going to happen is that that phage dna or viral dna is actually going to start utilizing some of the genes to make capsid proteins so i'm going to start getting tons and tons of capsid proteins that i'm also going to produce another thing that's going to happen is that this actual dna all of it will start kind of undergoing replication and i'm going to start replicating some of this actual dna and the dna is going to be a mixture of bacterial dna and phage dna then what i'm going to do is i'm going to start incorporating all of these things together into the capsids so as a result what will this look like in this next bacterial cell picture here so here i'm going to have tons of capsid proteins that i synthesize from that phage dna and these are going to be kind of taking up most of the host cell or this bacterial cell inside of it i'm going to have dna bacterial dna and i'm also going to have a little strip of phage dna incorporated into it then what's going to happen is this bacterial cell after it occupies all of this actual bacterial phages is eventually going to undergo lysis and pop and it's going to release out some of these bacterial phages that contain capsids and inside of the capsids it has a mixture of bacterial dna and phage or viral dna then that bacteriophage which was actually going to be again kind of formed from infecting the bacterial cell number one is going to go and infect bacterial cell number two with different dna but what is it going to inject into it it's going to inject into it dna that is bacterial dna from bacterial cell number one and phage or viral dna from that original bacteriophage and that's going to get put into this bacteria so here comes this dna which is kind of a mixture of bacterial dna and phage dna and guess what it's gonna get incorporated into the bed the dna of bacterial uh this bacterial cell number two and as a result you're gonna get a huge change in diversity here you see how this is very specialized so now i have a mixture of original bacterial dna some different bacterial dna and phage or viral dna within this last cell that's a huge change so there's a lot of genetic diversity and variation from bacterial cells to bacterial cell via this transduction process now the significance of this is particularly that certain bacteria perform specialized transduction and it enables them to produce very nasty exotoxins and you can remember the mnemonic by abcds so a is for group a streptococcus pyogenes which produces what's called a erythrogenic toxin okay so this is a type of exotoxin b is for the botulinum so the botulinum toxin c is for the cholera toxin d is for the ditherial toxin and s is for the sugar toxin which is produced by shigella diphtheria is produced by the corneal bacterium diphtheriae cholera toxin is produced by the vibrio cholera and then botulinum toxin is produced by the clostridium botulinum and then again the erythrogenic toxin is produced by group a streptococcus pyogenes if you really want to remember that it's produced what's called streptococcus pyogenes bacteria so that's why we call group a streptococcus pyogenes who produces the erythrogenic toxin that covers that let's finish off the bacterial genetics with transposition all right so we're on the last type here of the bacterial genetics discussion which is transposition now transposition is really cool um and it really comes into play with like you know drug resistance against certain types of bacteria all right so how does transposition work let's say i have again my chromosomal dna so this is my bacterial chromosomal dna and then here is my plasmid right which is again an extra chromosomal dna let's say that on my chromosomal dna i have a particular portion here that i'm going to zoom in on and look at so i have a particular portion of the chromosomal dna that i'm going to zoom on and really really look at because it has a very particular type of gene sequence or element that i want to talk about this element which we're zooming in on is what's called a transposable element a transposable transposable element it has two particular parts so it has this thing called your insertion sequence which is this purple part and then on the sides here it has these things called inverted repeats okay and what i need to what i really want you guys to remember about this is that on this sequence of dna which is going to be a part of the chromosomal dna it has this thing called a transposable element which is basically a gene and this gene when transcribed and translated makes a very particular type of protein called a transposon [Music] so it makes something called a transposon this transposon is an enzyme and it's a very interesting enzyme what this enzyme does is it does two things it comes back identifies the actual transposable element where the insertion sequence is in the inverted repeats are and it makes these cuts within that area just outside of the inverted repeats on opposite ends on opposite parts of the strand okay so it makes these cuts like right here that's what the transposon will do it'll be synthesized from the transposable element go back and recognize the site from which it was actually transcribed and cut on the sides of the inverted repeats on the opposite ends okay of the opposite dna strands then what it does is is it finds a particular sequence or a target sequence on dna maybe downstream from this chromosomal dna or a part of extra chromosomal dna like a plasmid dna so basically this dna could be of two parts it could be still part of that chromosomal dna or it could be a part of the plasmid dna okay this one we're just particularly zooming in on is just from the chromosomal dna but again what this transposon is is it's a protein or enzyme made from the transposable element on the chromosomal dna it then identifies the actual transposable element that was it was made from makes nicks on the side of the inverted repeats on opposite ends then it identifies a target sequence so this is going to be what's called our target sequence in pink here so this is our target sequence and this target sequence that we have here and pink could be just downstream from the chromosomal dna or it could be on the plasmid dna then what it does is it takes the dna from these portions here of the actual chromosomal dna and inserts it into the center so it makes like a little cut or a nick here right down the middle of the target sequence when it makes that cut it then inserts in this insertion sequence with the inverted repeats right into the center of it so what does that look like as a result of it as a result i'll have the target sequence right here on the sides because i kind of made like a little cut in the center of it right so there's my target sequences then i'm going to insert in the actual transposable element and on the sides what were there a maroon the inverted repeats so here's my inverted repeats and then right in the center is what my transposable element well the insertion sequence part of it right and that's going to go right here in the center and this is now my new dna that i have that's either incorporated into a plasmid or it's incorporated into the actual chromosomal dna downstream let's say for example let's use the example that this is one of the two it's either a new part of the dna which is in the plasmid or it's within side of the other part of the chromosomal dna let's just use plasmid as an example to explain the significance of why this is important let's say that this gene that we're talking about here that we're actually going to try to transpose is a very interesting gene that's important for antibiotic resistance let's take an example here here we have a bacteria right and we're going to call this bacteria an enterococcus right an enterococcus and let's say that it has kind of this very important gene that we want to focus on here's that gene okay so here's the dna and here's that particular gene that we're going to focus on this gene is called a a what's called a van a gene it's called a van a gene the van aging is a gene that whenever it gets transcribed and translated it makes proteins and these proteins that are actually synthesized alter the structure so they alter the peptidoglycan layer within the bacteria okay so again you have this enterococcus it has a very particular gene that we want to transpose to another bacteria and that gene is called the van a gene that van a gene basically whenever it gets transcribed translated it makes proteins and these proteins basically alter the structure of the peptidoglycan layer within the bacterial cell wall what that does is is it alters it in such a way that it leads to you know there's an antibiotic called vancomycin the vancomycin is no longer able to cause kind of destruction or alt basically destroy the actual cell wall the peptidoglycan layer so because this van aging leads to changes in the peptidoglycan layer it leads to vancomycin resistance okay and now that actual bacteria will be able to survive even in the presence of vancomycin which is a very powerful bacteria a very powerful antibiotic and this can lead to something called enterococcus uh you can have what's called vancomycin resistant enterococcus so you can have what's called vancomycin resistant enterococcus type of bacteria which is basically bacteria like enterococcus that are resistant to vancomycin via this van a gene now what if i wanted to take that van a gene and pass it on to another type of bacteria maybe i wanted this actual gene to get incorporated into the dna of staphylococcus aureus's dna but i had to do that by maybe passing on that bacteria via conjugation transformation or maybe through the transduction process and then once that dna is into this actual other bacterial cell we can then utilize this transposition process to incorporate some of that actual dna the van a gene into the dna of the staphylococcus aureus right so now what happens is let's say over here you take that enterococcus let's say here's our enterococcus and what it does is by some process it's able to pass on some of its actual dna and on that dna you contain that van a gene and the way by which this is taken into the staphylococcus areas could be by the conjugation via sax pillars it could be via some type of transformation where it's competent enough to take it up or there could be a bacteriophage that's taking that dna and injecting it into this bacteria either way it's getting that dna once it's then there it's able to incorporate it or transpose it into its dna and then from there now the staphylococcus aureus has what kind of gene it has the van a gene and now that it has that van a gene it then can do what it can alter the peptidoglycan layer of its cell wall it can lead to vancomycin resistance so this staphylococcus aureus can survive even in the presence of vancomycin and then that leads to what's called vancomycin resistant staphylococcus aureus so that's one of these really interesting things that transposition can do is it can lead to resistance to antibiotics by causing the transposition of particular genes or dna sequences from one type of bacteria to another type of bacteria and leading to antibiotic resistance in this example the vancomycin resistance via the van aging all right ninja nerds in this video we talk about bacterial genetics i hope it made sense i hope that you guys enjoyed it and as always until next time [Music] you

Channel: Ninja Nerd

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Keywords: Ninja Nerd Lectures, Ninja Nerd, Ninja Nerd Science, education, whiteboard lectures, medicine, science

Id: mg6tXQaiBaI

Length: 40min 40sec (2440 seconds)

Published: Mon Oct 18 2021