“To the king my lord. Your servant, Ashurbanipal. Good health to the king, my lord. May Nabu and Marduk bless the king, my lord.” In the sprawling city of Nineveh, around 685
BC, the Assyrian royal family welcomed a new member, Ashurbanipal. Being born into the world’s most powerful
family, a childhood of safety and privilege awaited him. Yet, by age four, he would be on the run. Escaping with his family from Nineveh’s
great walls – a place that should have been his sanctuary. The seeds of this escape were sown years earlier. More precisely, when the Elamites kidnapped
Ashurbanipal's uncle Ashur-nadin-shumi. Ashurbanipal’s grandfather, King Sennacherib,
called upon the formidable Assyrian army and marched to Elam to get his beloved son back. But the Elamites executed Ashur-nadin-shumi,
and Sennacherib had to appoint a new son to be his successor. Tradition dictated that the king's oldest
living son should be the heir. But Sennacherib defied this norm. He bypassed his elder sons and named Ashurbanipal's
father, Esarhaddon, the new crown prince. A decision that had unforeseen consequences. Ashurbanipal’s uncles openly showed their
frustration. And as tensions escalated, Sennacherib sent
Esarhaddon, along with his immediate family, away from Nineveh. But the storm was inevitable. Sennacherib was betrayed and murdered by his
own sons. The news of Sennacherib’s brutal death echoed
throughout the ancient world, leaving Esarhaddon with guilt and grief. Could he have prevented his father's death
had he stayed in Nineveh? The past didn’t matter now, and Esarhaddon
was forced to make a daunting decision. Remain in exile with his wife and children,
or abandon them to avenge his father. Although history only leaves us with Esarhaddon’s
decision, it must have been a hard one for him to make. He must have kissed his wife and children. Promised them he would be victorious while
masking his uncertainty. Swear that they would soon reunite while knowing
he could be away for months. And Ashurbanipal, at the tender age of four,
must have been old enough to shed tears of confusion and longing when his father departed. Esarhaddon rallied those still loyal to him, and marched to Nineveh. With the help of his mother, Naqia, Esarhaddon
won the civil war after six dreadful weeks. Ashurbanipal’s uncles fled north to Urartu
and were never seen again. And so, young Ashurbanipal, still too innocent
to grasp the magnitude of the events, returned to Nineveh with his family. Unaware that his teenage years and adult life
would be filled with similar events of dread, death, and despair. With time, things returned to normal in Nineveh,
and within the palace walls, young Ashurbanipal grew up amidst the laughter and squabbles
of his many siblings. He was surrounded by three elder brothers,
an elder sister, and at least ten younger siblings. The eldest, Sin-nadin-apli, was destined for
the throne. Yet, it was Shamash-shum-ukin with whom Ashurbanipal
shared a complex bond. They often engaged in board games where luck
was the most important factor to win. Something Ashurbanipal seemed to have more
of than his older brother. And whenever Ashurbanipal won, he’d mock
his brother, who ran after him. Until Sin-nadin-apli
or their sister, Sherua-etirat, stopped the commotion. Yet, beneath the surface, Ashurbanipal held
a soft spot for Shamash-shum-ukin, and referred to him as his favorite brother. Then there was Shamash-metu-uballit, the third
eldest brother. His name, translating to "Shamash has brought
life to the dead," hints at a life marked by illness from birth. His relationship
with Ashurbanipal remains a mystery. The palace in Nineveh, home to about fifteen
lively children, was constantly filled with the sounds of youthful cries, laughter, and
little feet running through its vast corridors. The only time the kids might have been quiet
was when Ashurbanipal’s grandmother, Naqia, was around. Although Ashurbanipal’s mother was the queen,
it was his grandmother he feared the most. And so did his other siblings and the rest
of the empire. Whenever Esarhaddon was home in Nineveh, he
was seen with Naqia more than anyone else. She was the only one the king could truly
trust. And except for Esarhaddon, Naqia was more
powerful than any man or woman in the Assyrian empire. Ashurbanipal barely saw his father. The king was constantly leading the Assyrian
army on war campaigns. And when he was back home in Nineveh he was
busy with appointments, administrative tasks, and other duties. But Esarhaddon still loved his children and
made plans for each of them. His plan for Ashurbanipal was to become a
priest. Since a priest had to be fluent in Akkadian
and Sumerian, Esarhaddon assigned Ashurbanipal a private teacher. The best scribe in his palace, Balasi. Balasi took his job with uttermost seriosity. But he couldn’t have asked for a better
student. Ashurbanipal showed great cognitive skills
as a kid. He quickly learned to read and write cuneiform. Just learning one cuneiform language could
take years. Ashurbanipal learned two. But apart from scribal arts, Ashurbanipal
was talented in mathematics too. He loved solving complex mathematical problems. And in general, he was interested in anything
that would expand his knowledge. And Balasi kept polishing the diamond he found
in Ashurbanipal. The two would form a lifelong friendship. When Ashurbanipal was eleven years old, he
experienced another family tragedy. This time it was his oldest brother, Sin-nadin-apli,
who died unexpectedly. And history repeated itself. Just as Ashurbanipal’s grandfather Sennacherib
lost his firstborn son and crown prince, Ashurbanipal’s father had to go through the same misfortune. After grieving over the loss, Esarhaddon had
to choose a new heir to the throne. He knew that Ashurbanipal was a great candidate. Balasi kept reporting on the boy’s progress,
and Esarhaddon certainly saw something unique with him too. But nobody knew better than Esarhaddon what
could happen if he overlooked his oldest living son, Shamash-shum-ukin, as crown prince. When Esarhaddon was to appoint the new crown
prince, his health was deteriorating. The disease that had haunted him for most
of his adult life had worsened. None of his specialists could heal him. Neither could they diagnose the illness. The king could go days without eating, and
was deeply depressed. He was always paranoid, fearing the gods'
wrath and questioning what he might have done to receive this life. A murdered father, a dead son, and a sick
body and soul. But nonetheless, Esarhaddon’s health made
it evident that he had to choose a crown prince. The king sought advice from his mother, Naqia,
as he had done many times before. Naqia affirmed that Ashurbanipal was her favorite
grandson and preferred crown prince. But she knew that if Shamash-shum-ukin gathered
support and revolted, a civil war could break out. It was barely ten years ago when it happened
between Esarhaddon and his brothers. Eventually, Esarhaddon and Naqia came up with
an unconventional idea. Both brothers would be kings. As equals. Ashurbanipal would rule Assyria and Shamash-shum-ukin would rule Babylonia. Thus they completely overruled Ashurbanipal’s second oldest brother, Shamash-metu-uballit. The reason was likely because he, just like
his father, suffered from illness and disease. But there was another problem with this master
plan. Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin could never
be equals. The king who ruled Assyria, was by definition,
also ruling Babylonia. And even if that wasn’t the case, Babylonia
was a tiny piece of land in the vast ocean that comprised the Assyrian empire. Ashurbanipal knew this. Shamash-shum-ukin knew this. And every citizen in Assyria and beyond knew
this. Esarhaddon and Naqia weren’t stupid. They knew this too. But formally declaring the brothers as equals
and making Shamash-shum-ukin king of Babylon was intended to reduce the risk of civil war. At least, that's what they believed. Esarhaddon quickly changed Ashurbanipal’s
educational path from priest to king. Since Ashurbanipal could read and write, he
got to be a spymaster. Esarhaddon introduced Ashurbanipal to the network of
spies in his empire and told him to send him written reports. This gave Ashurbanipal invaluable experience
in the affairs and political landscape of Assyria. One year later, when Ashurbanipal was 14,
his father marched against Egypt again. Ashurbanipal had to stay home. But he continuously received reports from
his father's scribes who traveled with the army. The first time Esarhaddon had gone to Egypt,
he was defeated and withdrew. But this time, he was victorious. The news reached Ashurbanipal like wildfire. Egypt belonged to Assyria for the first time
in history. And Ashurbanipal’s future empire was the
largest the world had ever seen. Shortly after Esarhaddon’s conquest of Egypt,
the Assyrian empire was struck with a crisis. News of a prophecy linked with the moon god
Sin, foretold that the seed of Sennacherib, Ashurbanipal’s grandfather, would be destroyed. Behind this prophecy was a man called Sasi. He was a distant member of the royal family,
allegedly a descendant of Ashurbanipal’s great-grandfather Sargon II. Sasi was planning to usurp the throne from
Esarhaddon. And his plot gained momentum. He gathered support from all corners of the
empire. And before long, he had infiltrated Esarhaddon’s
inner circle. Even Ashur-nasir, one of Esarhaddon’s most
trusted advisors, changed sides to support Sasi. Esarhaddon wasn’t surprised that trusted
advisors and governors betrayed him. His own brothers had done that. But Esarhaddon wasn’t expecting the number
of supporters Sasi gathered. Sasi’s influence grew day by day. The situation turned so severe that Esarhaddon
had a substitute king take his crown while he went into hiding. But Esarhaddon didn’t stick his head in
the sand. Instead, away from the spotlight, he worked
day and night, gathering information about the plot. Probably with the help of his spymaster Ashurbanipal
and other loyal people throughout his empire. After three months of hiding, Esarhaddon
had mapped most of the plotters. And when no one expected it, he struck like
a wind from Enlil. Esarhaddon massacred the plotters throughout
his empire. Sasi included. It was a large scale mass-execution. Esarhaddon even destroyed buildings where
the plotters had been meeting. He then tightened the security even further,
and Ashurbanipal had learned one of his greatest lessons. So far. One year later, at the age of 15, Ashurbanipal
managed the whole empire’s intelligence network. This was a big step for the future king, whose
support from his father was undeniable. But Ashurbanipal’s education as a future
king also led him to physical activities. He was taught to drive chariots, ride horses,
and fire arrows on horseback. With these skills under his belt, Ashurbanipal
learned how to hunt lions. While hunting animals was a widespread activity
in Assyria, hunting lions was only for royals. And it was an activity the future king would
return to throughout his life. But being crown prince also came with other
duties. Ashurbanipal had to marry his future queen. He chose a woman named Libbali-sharrat. Nothing is known about her background, but
she wasn’t born with the name Libbali-sharrat, since the word sharrat basically means queen. The wedding was likely arranged, but the couple's
affection for each other indicates that there was love behind the marriage too. But not all were happy with Libbali-sharrat’s
entry into the royal family. Ashurbanipal’s sister, Sherua-etirat, wrote
this letter to her new sister-in-law: “Why don’t you write your tablets and
recite your exercise, or people will say, is this the sister of Sherua-etirat, the oldest
daughter of the succession palace of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria. You, a daughter in law, the lady of Ashurbanipal, the great crown prince of the house of the succession of Esarhaddon, king of Assyria. If Sherua-etirat was jealous or actually thought
that Libbali-sharrat would bring shame to the royal family for being illiterate is not
obvious. But Libbali-sharrat eventually learned to
read and write, and in a stele she had erected and composed, she noted that Ashurbanipal
was her beloved husband. Ashurbanipal reciprocated her affection and
had his queen depicted on reliefs in his future palace. A rare thing for Assyrian kings to do. Esarhaddon kept giving authority to his sons,
Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin. And when he embarked on another trip to Egypt
to suppress a rebellion, he left his sons to rule his empire. But on the first of November, 669 BC, the
king suddenly died at age 44. Although Esarhaddon was sick, he was healthy
enough to take the long road to Egypt. So when Ashurbanipal received the message
of his father’s death, it came as a shock that gripped him with sorrow, but also fear. No matter how much Ashurbanipal had trained
for his future role as king of the world’s largest empire, he was still only 16. But luckily for him, he had his grandmother
Naqia behind his back. Naqia had lived with and supported three of
Assyria's prior kings. Her father-in-law, King Sargon II. Her husband, King Sennacherib. And her son, King Esarhaddon. She wouldn’t let anything or anyone stand
in the way of extending the royal legacy to Ashurbanipal. But with the events of Sasi fresh in mind
and the civil war between Esarhaddon and his brothers only a decade away, Naqia had to
act fast. Upon Esarhaddon’s death, Naqia wrote a treaty
that she spread across every corner of the Assyrian empire. “Treaty of Naqia, grandmother of Ashurbanipal, imposed on all the people of Assyria on behalf of Ashurbanipal, her favorite grandson. If you hear of evil intrigue being contrived
against Ashurbanipal, King of Assyria, your lord, you shall speak of it in the presence
of Naqia. If you know that there are men who agitate
or conspire among you – whether bearded men or eunuchs, whether your brothers or your
friends or anyone in the whole country should you hear or know, you shall seize and kill
them and bring them to Naqia.” Naqia meant what she wrote. And people in Assyria knew it. But that didn’t mean everybody obeyed her. Ashurbanipal’s older brother, Shamash-metu-uballit,
did not accept his grandmother’s treaty. He was Esarhaddon's second oldest living son
and, therefore, should have been the rightful ruler next to Shamash-shum-ukin. Naqia did not care that Shamash-metu-uballit
was her grandson. She probably gave him a chance to rethink. But since he kept his hostility open against
Ashurbanipal, Naqia had him killed. That set an example of what Naqia would do to anyone
opposing Ashurbanipal as their king. And when it was time for his ascension, nobody
dared to raise a finger. Ashurbanipal ascended the throne of Assyria
and became the most powerful man in the world, at the age of 16. A few months later, Shamash-shum-ukin was
crowned king of Babylon. And everything seemed to go as Naqia and Esarhaddon
had planned. That is until the problems in Egypt started. Upon becoming king, Ashurbanipal had to deal
with tremendous amounts of administration. Officials throughout his empire wrote letters
to him, which he had to read and respond to such as this one. "They used to receive and introduce all reports from the astrologers into the presence of king Esarhaddon, my lord. Afterwards, a man whom the king Esarhaddon, knew, used to read them to him in a private garden on the riverbank. Nowadays, it should be done as it best suits
the king, Ashurbanipal, my lord.” While Ashurbanipal was busy setting up office
in his capital, the Egyptian pharao Taharqa saw his chance to break free from Assyrian
rule. He led troops that crushed the Assyrian garrison
stationed at the city of Memphis, and the news reached Ashurbanipal. Taharqa had more than 20 years of experience
with the Assyrians. Although he lost the last war against Esarhaddon,
he had been victorious in another a few years back. Taharqa’s move to regain independence from
Assyria, as Ashurbanipal was trying to fit the crown to his head, was smart. And he may have even have succeeded had it
not been for Ashurbanipal’s understanding of warfare. Ashurbanipal dispatched an army to retake
Egypt and called upon his allies in the Levant. Even Cyprus sent troops and equipment, including
ships, to the Assyrian cause. Ashurbanipal’s troops and allies won a battle
in the city of Kar-Banitu. Taharqa fled south, and the Assyrians regained
control over Egypt. Taharqa died in exile a few years later, but
his rage against the Assyrians was inherited by his son, Tanatamun. The new pharaoh followed his father’s footsteps
and revolted against the Assyrians. When Ashurbanipal heard of it, he dispatched
troops again. Tanatamun fled south, and remained there until
his death. After the recurring revolts in Egypt, Ashurbanipal
installed Psamtik as the pharaoh. Psamtik had spent time in the Assyrian court
under Esarhaddon. Thus Ashurbanipal knew him well and equipped
him with Assyrian garrisons before he had his main troops return home. But Ashurbanipal underestimated Psamtik’s
ambitions. The Egyptian pharaoh would not remain a puppet
ruler for long. At the age of 20, Ashurbanipal had regained
control over Egypt. And with more time over, he set out to make his
biggest vision come true. A library that held the world’s knowledge
in Nineveh. The idea may have come from Ashurbanipal's
early years as a priest student. Another possible inspiration was his teacher,
Balasi. Ashurbanipal looked up to Balasi even after
becoming king. And although the king was one of Assyria’s
greatest scribes, he still revered and respected his mentor. As this letter from Balasi to Ashurbanipal
reveals: “To the king, my lord: your servant Balasi. Concerning the tablet of Shumma Izbu about which the king, my lord, wrote to me: 'Look at it!' There is a particular tablet, and I am now
sending it to the king. The king should have a look. Shumma Izbu is difficult to interpret. The first time that I come before the king,
my lord, I shall show how the omen is written. Really, the one who has not had it pointed out to him cannot possibly understand it." One can imagine Ashurbanipal and Balasi having
countless discussions over such matters. Ashurbanipal was obsessed with knowledge. And he was convinced that if he could make
the dream of his library come true, the whole world would lay at his feet. The problem with his quest was that most tablets
he wanted were in southern Mesopotamia, far from Nineveh. And people in the south were not as fond of
the Assyrian king as in the north. But nevertheless, Ashurbanipal sent his scribes
there and gave them a fortune to spend on acquiring the tablets that he wanted to own. When the people of Babylon heard how much
Ashurbanipal would spend on his library, a huge crowd gathered in excitement. But Ashurbanipal wasn’t just going to buy
anything inscribed on clay. He clearly informed his scribes about what
tablets he was looking for. As this letter from Ashurbanipal to his scribe
Shudunu reveals. “Whatever is needed for the library, whatever there is, and rare tablets that are known to you that do not exist in Assyria, search them out and bring them to me! I have just written to the temple steward
and the governor; in the houses where you set your hand no one can withhold a tablet
from you. And should you find any tablet that I have not written to you about that is good for the library, take that as well and send it
to me." Whenever the scribes came home with new tablets,
Ashurbanipal had them copied onto fresh clay. All scribes Ashurbanipal employed in his library
were calligraphers of the highest quality. They hardly ever made mistakes. But if they did, there was no way to hide
it. Ashurbanipal could read and write as good,
if not better, than his best scribes. And he made sure to read the tablets in his
library and even had his signature inscribed. The king himself also composed many works
written in his own hand. As his scribes collected more tablets, Ashurbanipal
started organizing his library. He categorized the literature into divination,
religious, lexical, medical, magical, ritual, mythological, mathematical, scientifical,
historical, laws, and other tablets. But his sense of perfectionism didn’t end
there. Ashurbanipal made sure each tablet in a compilation
carried a library tag or colophon, detailing its running number, the name of the series
as a whole, and the first line of the next tablet to come. “I have placed these tablets for the future
in the library at Nineveh, for my life and for the well-being of my soul.” Ashurbanipal was more proud of his library
and his knowledge than anything else. “I learned the craft of the sage Adapa, the secret and hidden lore of all of the scribal arts. I am able to recognize celestial and terrestrial
omens and can discuss them in an assembly of scholars. I am capable of arguing with expert diviners. I can resolve complex mathematical divisions and multiplications that do not have an easy solution. I have read written texts in obscure Sumerian
and Akkadian that are difficult to interpret. I have carefully examined inscriptions on stone from before the Deluge that are sealed and confused." Whenever Ashurbanipal was depicted on reliefs,
he ensured his engravers presented him with a stylus tucked into his belt. A type of pen used for inscribing cuneiform. It didn’t matter if he was hunting lions,
riding and firing arrows, or doing other activities. He wanted to show that the pen was part of
him and that he was a warrior and a scholar. Perhaps not wanting to be away from his library
for months is one reason we don't find any record of Ashurbanipal going to war with his
army. Or maybe he was smart enough to realize there
were better generals than him to lead his army. Ashurbanipal spent much time in his squared
library in the Southwest Palace in Nineveh. It could have looked similar to a library
today, with the clay tablets placed on their edge in niches. Covering the entire walls from top to bottom. The fact that there even was a toilet in connection
with the library says a great deal about the countless hours the king spent there, studying,
reading, and expanding his knowledge. Being the king of Assyria not only meant the
power to construct libraries. The role also came with serious responsibilities. The most obvious was to maintain control over
an empire that stretched from the Persian Gulf, up to Anatolia, the Levant, and Egypt. Through Phoenician networks, the Assyrians
traded as far west as Cadiz, in modern-day Spain, where olive oil and wine were imported. Ashurbanipal organized his empire into provinces,
each supervised by a governor appointed by the king. Every province, except the ones that protected
Assyria’s borders, paid taxes to Nineveh. Ashurbanipals governors made up a group of high state
officials commonly referred to as the 'great ones'. The seven most senior were: 1. supreme commander of the Assyrian army and
commander of the western army 2.commander of the royal army 3. commander of the northern army 4.commander of the north-eastern army 5. chief judge 6. state treasurer 7. grand vizier Ashurbanipal issued golden signet rings bearing
copies of the imperial seal to all high officials. Documents sealed with these rings carried
royal authority and had to be obeyed. For this to work, however, the king had to
rely on the judgement of his high officials. That’s why many of Ashurbanipal’s high
officials were eunuchs. Men who agreed to adopt new names and renounce
all family ties to show their loyalty to the king. Since eunuchs couldn’t father children,
they were less likely to want to pass on power and betray the king. But while Ashurbanipal’s organized empire
seemed waterproof on paper, the reality was different. Assyria was not protected by mountain ranges
or the sea. It lay in an open flat landscape that, until
this day, is a war zone. And that was one of the reasons Ashurbanipal
invested heavily in his army. If the enemies of Assyria, who were present
in every direction of the empire, discovered that the empire was weak, they would take
the chance and strike. After a decade of peace with the Elamites,
that’s exactly what happened. Although the Elamite king Urtak and Ashurbanipal’s
father were friends and even exchanged children to be raised in each other's courts, Urtak
attacked Babylonian territories in 664 BC. Ashurbanipal was not the ruler of Babylonia. His brother Shamash-shum-ukin was. But the overall military security of the kingdom,
including its east Tigris regions, was controlled by Ashurbanipal. The reason was likely that Ashurbanipal never trusted
his brother enough to give him military resources that could be used against him. Ashurbanipal sent his troops south, and the Assyrians
repelled the Elamite invasion. King Urtak died the same year and his brother,
Teumman, took the throne unrightfully, instead of Urtak’s son Ummanigash. Fearing for his life, Ummanigash fled to Nineveh
with his two younger brothers and dozens of members of his wider royal family. Ashurbanipal granted them all security. Something that enraged Teumman. The new Elamite king demanded that Ashurbanipal
hand them over, but Ashurbanipal refused. The Assyrian king knew that knowledge was
power, and having indigenous Elamites by his side could be useful. The years went by, and while Ashurbanipal
put down rebellions in the levant as well as Anatolia and Urartu, Egypt was slowly slipping
from his hands. The puppet Psamtik had grown in confidence. And while Psamtik still had great respect
for Ashurbanipal, he wanted full control of Egypt. He tried to do it peacefully, to not enrage
Ashurbanipal, while also making new allies in case the Assyrian king would retaliate. But somehow, the relationship between Egypt
and Assyria remained friendly. And decades later, Psamtik would send troops
to help Ashurbanipal’s son. But for the time being, Ashurbanipal had to
let go of Egypt. He was faced with a much greater threat in
the East, again. The Elamite king Teumman had spent the years
following his ascent to the throne, planning how to exterminate Assyria. The tension between Teumman and Ashurbanipal,
and Teumman and anything that was Assyrian, grew larger than ever. It probably had little to do with the fact
that Ashurbanipal held the true king of Elam, Ummanigash, in his court at Nineveh. And more to do with Teummans anti-Assyrian
politics. In 653 BC, Teumman felt confident enough to
attack Ashurbanipal’s empire in the hopes of bringing it down. But the Elamite king had greatly underestimated
the Assyrian army – or overestimated that of his own. Because his attack was repelled by the Assyrians,
who, by the orders of Ashurbanipal, went after the Elamites. At Til-tuba, by the river of Ulai, both armies
clashed in a brutal fight that changed the color of Ulai. The Assyrian army launched a full-scale attack. The Elamites resisted desperately, but the
Assyrian forces swiftly penetrated their battle lines. This advance forced the Elamites into a chaotic
retreat. In their panic, they fled down a hill, with
the relentless Assyrians closing in on them. The Elamites’ flight was halted at the banks
of the Ulai River, where they faced a grim choice: fight or jump. The Assyrians, however, gave them little chance,
cutting down many and hurling the rest into the river. Amidst this turmoil, the Elamite King Teumman
and his son Tammaritu were thrown from their chariot in their attempt to escape. Though both quickly rose, Tammaritu's second
bid for freedom was cut short when an arrow struck his father. The Assyrians closed in swiftly, surrounding
them. In a final act of defiance, Tammaritu drew
his bow, but an Assyrian soldier struck him down with a decisive blow from a mace. To seal the victory over Elam, another Assyrian
soldier cut off Teumman's head and carried it as a trophy all the way to Nineveh, for
Ashurbanipal. The Assyrian king, who was 32 years old at
the time, was proud of this victory. He had Teumman’s head hooked to a tree in
his garden, and celebrated with his wife Libbali-sharrat. The royal couple feasted on the finest food
in the shade under grapevines, accompanied by musicians and servants. This banquet scene also illustrates the cover
of Table of Gods. My upcoming cookbook, inspired by the world's
oldest recipes, written on clay tablets in ancient Mesopotamia 4,000 years ago. But more than a cookbook, Table of Gods is
a time machine in the size of a coffee table book, aiming to transport readers back to
the cradle of civilization through all senses. Each chapter of the book begins with a travel
guide to a Mesopotamian city and then presents recipes from that very city, adapted for the
modern kitchen. If you've ever wanted to dine like Ashurbanipal
or walk the streets of Nineveh, Ashur, or Babylon, it will soon be possible. If you join the waiting list at tableofgods.com/yt,
you'll receive three ancient recipes and one monthly email detailing my progress, including
my journeys to the cradle of civilization, where I've traveled several times over the
past years to immerse myself in its rich history and culinary traditions. With Teumman dead, his nephews Ummanigash
and Tammaritu could return home to Elam. Ashurbanipal had protected the brothers from
Teumman for a decade and placed a lot of trust in them. He installed Ummanigash as king over Madaktu
and Tammaritu over Hidalu. Both were Elamite cities. And the brother’s sworn loyalty to the Assyrian
king. With Elam finally subdued, Ashurbanipal could
catch his breath. It was a brief respite, however, since his
father's worst nightmare came true. Shamash-shum-ukin had been the king of Babylon
for 16 years. While his father planned that he and Ashurbanipal
would be equals, nothing could be further from the truth. Shamash-shum-ukin barely managed an army to
protect his city. And he regularly had to put up with his younger
brother interfering in Babylonian affairs. Such as when Ashurbanipal built Babylon’s
most important temple, the Esagila, and the great ziggurat Etemenanki. Works that should have been carried out by
the king of Babylon. Although Shamash-shum-ukin never got over
his father’s decision to place Ashurbanipal on the Assyrian throne, he must have accepted
it, based on 16 years of peace. But when Shamash-shum-ukin didn’t even get
to act as the king of tiny Babylon, he couldn’t take it anymore. Shamash-shum-ukin, who was ethnically Assyrian,
had immersed himself in Babylonian culture. He assimilated well and attended rituals and
festivals as any native Babylonian king would. His support in southern Mesopotamia was unquestionable. But Shamash-shum-ukin knew that the local
support wasn’t enough to break free from Assyrian rule. So he began assembling allies he knew despised
Assyria. And there were lots of them. The news reached Ashurbanipal. And if Ashurbanipal tried to talk sense directly
to his brother to stop the revolt is not recorded. But maybe Shamash-shum-ukin had enough of
his young brother, bossing him around, in which case it wouldn’t matter. Ashurbanipal must have felt deep feelings
of betrayal. Shamash-shum-ukin was, after all, Ashurbanipal’s
favorite brother. And one he had spent a lot of time growing
up with. In a last attempt to avoid a revolt, Ashurbanipal
wrote a letter addressed to the people of Babylon. “I have heard the lying word which that
unbrotherly brother of mine said to you; I have heard everything he said. They are lies! Do not trust him! I swear by Ashur and Marduk, my gods, that I have neither planned in my heart nor spoken with my mouth any of the bad things that he
spoke concerning me. If you have not sullied yourselves with him
in this affair, let me see an answer to my letter immediately!" Ashurbanipal’s attempt to stop the rebellion
was in vain. The people of Babylonia supported Shamash-shum-ukin. And so did Ummanigash. The Elamite king that Ashurbanipal protected
for a decade and installed on the throne of Elam. This was the second time Ashurbanipal had
been betrayed by a king he had established. The first being the Egyptian pharaoh Psamtik. But no betrayal could have hurt as much as
that coming from his own brother. “In these days, Shamash-shum-ukin, the faithless
brother of mine, whom I had treated well and had set up as king of Babylon, every imaginable
thing that kingship calls for, I made and gave him. Soldiers, horses, chariots, I equipped and
put into his hands. Cities, fields, plantations, together with
the people who live therein, I gave him in larger numbers than my father had ordered. But he forgot this kindness I had shown him
and planned evil.” According to a later legend, Ashurbanipal
and Shamash-shum-ukin’s sister, Sherua-etirat, attempted to intervene and stop her brothers
from fighting. While that may be true, it didn’t help. The siblings’ mother, Esharra-hammat, couldn’t
do anything either, since she had passed away long before. If the brothers’ grandmother Naqia was alive
at the time is not certain. But if she was, she would likely have supported
her favorite grandson, Ashurbanipal. There was nothing that could prevent the war
between Ashurbanipal and Shamash-shum-ukin. Except for divine intervention. On the 17th of July 652 BC, Ashurbanipal asked
his diviners if he would be favored in an attack against his brother. After the diviners performed a ritual, they
told Ashurbanipal that even if Assyrian troops were to enter Babylon they would not capture
his rebellious brother, Shamash-shum-ukin. In normal cases that should have been enough
to stop Ashurbanipal. But the Assyrian king deliberately disregarded
the oracle’s words, and dispatched his troops to Babylonia. By late 652 BC, the brothers were at war. During the first two years, they fought all
over Babylonia, from cities in the north to the Sealand in the south. Some victories went to the Ashurbanipal, others
to Shamash-shum-ukin. Key cities changed hands, and there was a
considerable amount of chaos. It was difficult for both sides to keep track
of their allies and enemies, especially when major players secretly changed sides,
and disclosing state secrets to the enemy. One of them was Nabu-bel-shumati. A man whose betrayal enraged Ashurbanipal
to the point the Assyrian king would never cease searching for him. Despite military support from foreign rulers,
Shamash-shum-ukin was losing ground. Ashurbanipal took control of the south and
by mid 650 BC, he laid siege to Babylon. He cut off their access to food and water,
as well as military aid. During the following two years of the Assyrian
blockade, the Babylonians suffered from thirst, hunger, and disease. Documents from Babylon support Ashurbanipal's
grim descriptions of the misery. “Instead of bread, they ate the flesh of
their sons. Instead of beer, they drank the blood of their
daughters. From lack of food, their limbs stopped working
and withered away. The faces of the people darkened with depression
and mourning. Silence lay over the city and its ruler. A deathly hush had been poured out.” During the same period, Shamash-shum-ukin
wrote down his feelings of despair, being captured in his own city: “I moan like a dove night and day. I bemoan myself, I weep bitterly. Tears are forced from my eyes.” After two years inside the city walls, the
Babylonians opened the gates. It could have been by the orders of Shamash-shum-ukin
who saw it as the only way to save his people. But it could also have been that the inhabitants
themselves finally took that decision. In any case, Ashurbanipal would not spare
his brother. Nor the Babylonians who supported him. “Not one escaped. As for those men and their vulgar mouths, who uttered vulgarity against Assur, my god, and plotted evil against me. I slit their
tongues and brought them low. The rest of the people, alive, by the colossi, between which they had cut down Sennacherib, the father of the father who begot me. I cut down those people there, as an offering to his shade.” When the Assyrians entered Babylon they burned
the city. Ashurbanipal wrote about that too, and the
fate of his brother. “As for Shamash-shum-ukin, my hostile brother who had planned murder against Assyria and uttered grievous blasphemies against the god
Ashur, the god who created me, the god Ashur determined for him a cruel death. He consigned him to a fire and destroyed his life.” From Ashurbanipal’s inscription, it seems
that Shamash-shum-ukin threw himself into the fire to avoid being captured by his brother. Shamash-shum-ukin's prized possessions – his
crown, sceptre, and seal – were plundered from his palace and paraded with other spoils
of war before Ashurbanipal. Ashurbanipal appointed loyal officials and
a new king, Kandalanu, to rule over Babylonia. After having seen what happened to Ashurbanipal’s
brother, they remained loyal. The civil war against Babylon took its toll
on 37-year-old Ashurbanipal. Deep down, the Assyrian king must have felt
that it could’ve been avoided. And that he could’ve acted differently to
keep better relations with his brother. On one hand, Ashurbanipal failed his father,
for not being equal to his brother, and therefore causing Shamash-shum-ukin to revolt. On the other hand, Shamash-shum-ukin may have
planned the revolt ever since he became the king of Babylon. In any case, causing the death of a favorite
brother must have been a tragic moment in Ashurbanipal’s life, regardless of his cruel
and cold inscriptions about it. But whenever the king needed to shift focus,
he turned to an activity he had enjoyed since childhood. Lion hunting. The adrenaline felt from the
roaring lions within arm's reach, forced the king to clear his mind. To stay focused and be present. Or else, he could suffer severely. Ashurbanipal used to hunt lions in the wild. He would travel by boat or on horseback to
the countryside around Nineveh. There was an abundance of lions there, which
was confirmed by archeologist Henry Layard, 2,500 years later. But the lion hunt also occurred in a more
controlled environment in the capital. In the northeastern part of Nineveh, there
was a large arena, resembling the Roman colosseum. Here, in front of big crowds, hungry lions
would be released against Ashurbanipal and his bodyguards. But contrary to the Romans, this wasn’t
simply entertainment – although people would try to get the best seats during the event. For the Assyrians, this tradition held a deep
purpose. The king showed his people, that by killing
the lions, he could protect them from evil. And for Ashurbanipal, who never went on war
campaigns, the lion hunt was his chance to show his physical abilities. “I, Ashurbanipal, king of the universe, whom Ashur endowed with supreme strength, the lions which I killed I amed the terrible
bow of Ishtar, lady of battle. I offered an offering over them, I poured
a libation of wine over them.” If the king was ever in real danger is questionable. He must have been when hunting lions in the wild. But in the arena, the lion hunt was highly
organized, and the king usually rode on a chariot. That made it harder for the lions to get to
him. But that didn’t mean they didn’t try. Despite being an organized event, hunting
lions with bow and sword, came with risks. If Ashurbanipal had a bad day and missed his
target, he had to rely on his body guards. And with more than one lion unleashed at the
time, there was always a possibility of something going wrong. Which the fear in the eyes of Ashurbanipal’s
horses clearly tells. But despite lions’ sharp teeth, claws and
rage, the real danger for Ashurbanipal was elsewhere. The year following the death of Shamash-shum-ukin,
Ashurbanipal wrote a letter to the elders of Elam. The Assyrian king still hadn’t forgotten
about Nabu-bel-shumati, the official who betrayed him in the Babylonian war. Ashurbanipal warned the Elamites that failure
to hand over Nabu-bel-shumati would result in the complete destruction of their land. But the new Elamite king, Ummanaldash, refused. The reason might have been that he wanted the Assyrians
to invade so he could in turn punish them. Or that he simply didn’t believe Ashurbanipal would
send his whole army just to capture one person. But Ashurbanipal meant every single word. He sent his troops to Hamanu and captured
the city easily, forcing Ummanaldash to flee into the mountains. But Ashurbanipal wasn’t done. After 20 years of continuous rebellion and
betrayal, he had grown tired of Elam. So he marched on Susa, Elam’s most revered
city. “I conquered the city Susa, a great cult
centre, the residence of their gods, a place of their secret lore. I had the sanctuaries utterly destroyed and
I counted its gods and its goddesses as ghosts. My battle troops entered inside them, saw their secrets, and burned them with fire.” From that day on, Elam was never a problem
again for the Assyrians. But Ashurbanipal wasn’t satisfied yet. So he wrote again to Ummanaldash. Asking, or rather demanding, that he hand over
Nabu-bel-shumati. The letter seemed to have reached all the
way to Nabu-bel-shumati himself. “His heart became anxious and distressed. His life was not precious to him and he wanted
to die. He spoke to his own personal attendant, saying: “Cut me down with the sword.” Ummanaldash became frightened and preserved
the corpse of Nabu-bel-shumati in salt, and then he gave it to my messenger.” After the death of Nabu-bel-shumati, a group
of Assyrian soldiers tracked down Ummanaldash who was hiding in the mountains. They took him to Nineveh, and Ashurbanipal, who
let him live, with one requirement. He would serve the Assyrian king until the
end of his days. He was made to carry the king's food at festive
banquets and pull his chariot like a horse during New Year festivals. Ashurbanipal was now in his 40s. And while that is considered middle age today,
40 was a ripe old age for an Assyrian king. With Babylonia and Elam dealt with, Ashurbanipal
turned his attention to his capital, Nineveh. The king built a new palace, the North Palace,
which he decorated with wall panels showing off his victorious battle campaigns and lion
hunts. Ashurbanipal also built another library
in his new palace and started collecting new tablets. Although his age made it harder for him to
hunt lions, reading, and writing were a passion he continued to pursue. But Ashurbanipal’s last years went silent. The king became absent and was likely suffering
from depression. Just like his father. Ashurbanipal’s inscriptions used to flow
with energy, confidence, and power. But in one of his last journals we get closer
to his emotions than ever before. And his words tell us of a man that had been through
much in his life, and had little left to live for. “I cannot do away with the strife in my country and the dissensions in my family; disturbing scandals oppress me always. Illness of mind and flesh bow me down. With cries of woe, I bring my days to an end. On the day of the city god, the day of the
festival, I am wretched; death is seizing hold upon me, and bears me down.” The last decade of Ashurbanipal’s reign
is a vacuum in history. And at the age of 54, Ashurbanipal died. His wife Libbali-sharrat lived for a few more
years. And the couple’s oldest son Ashur-etel-ilani
took over the throne. But after he died only four years later, Ashurbanipal’s
second oldest son, Sin-shar-ishkun, became king. But none of them could ever fill their father’s
shoes. And the vast Assyrian empire fell less than
20 years after Ashurbanipal’s death. When the Medes and Babylonians broke the walls
of Nineveh in 612 BC, they destroyed the city to the ground. They defaced Ashurbanipal’s head on wall
reliefs in his palace, and burned his library. The aggressive fire baked the clay tablets
and, ironically, helped preserve them for Henry Layard, who excavated Ashurbanipal’s
library 2,500 years later. Ashurbanipal’s reign brought the Neo-Assyrian
Empire to its zenith, stretching its influence far and wide. But his most enduring legacy and greatest
conquest was always in this humble room in Nineveh. With more than 30,000 clay tablets, Ashurbanipal’s
library was one of the most outstanding achievements any king ever accomplished. In his quest for wisdom, Ashurbanipal unknowingly
built a bridge between his world and the modern world we live in today. Hadn’t it been for his library, much of
what we know about ancient Mesopotamia today, would be a black hole. Among the most known works he collected and
copied are the Babylonian creation epic Enuma Elish, The myth of Adapa, The Poor Man of
Nippur, and the Epic of Gilgamesh. Ashurbanipal's personality was a paradox. He slayed lions, killed his brother, and hung
beheaded enemy heads on trees in his garden. He grew up amidst family tragedies, lived
in constant war, and was betrayed many times. On the one hand, his life was marked by brutal
and ruthless actions, reflecting the harsh realities of his time and the demands of his
role as king of Assyria. Yet, there was something humble in his love
for literature. Something genuine in his relationship with
his childhood mentor Balasi. And something admirable in his dedication
to building a library of 30,000 clay tablets, not only for his own use, but for future generations.
