Alexander the Great stood at the head of the
world’s most feared army, using it to carve for himself a vast empire. He crushed the Persian Empire and then thrust
his way into Egypt and India to become the acknowledged king of kings. Then at the height of his power he was cut
down, leaving behind a legacy of heroism, divinity and tyranny. In today’s Biographics, we examine the incredible
life of Alexander. Early Years
The future Alexander the Great was born in Pella, Macedonia, the capital of Ancient Greece. Because the Greeks used a different calendar
than we do, we can’t say with certainty what his date of birth was. Most historians believe that he was born on
July 20th, 356 BCE. He was the son of the king of Macedon, Philip
II and the principle one of his seven wives, Olympias of Epirus. As the son of the king, Alexander was raised
by a nurse. He had private tutors, with the first one
being a relative by the name of Leonidas. This man was a strict teacher who demanded
a high level of academic rigor of the young prince. Leonidas schooled Alexander in such subjects
as math, reading and languages. At around the age of seven, Alexander started
instruction under one of his father’s generals, a man by the name of Lysimachus of Acarnania. His job was to teach the boy to behave like
a noble. Alexander was taught to play the lyre as well
as to ride and hunt. Lysimachus also gave him instruction in fighting. When he was ten years old, Alexander’s father
was presented with a horse for sale by a trader. But the horse was wild and no one could mount
it. Philip was about to dismiss the trader when,
young Alexander stepped forward and said that he could tame the animal. The boy set himself to breaking the animal
in and becoming its master. This was a dangerous task even for a grown
man, but young Alexander showed impressive determination and perseverance to conquer
the horse. His father, the king, was so proud of his
son that he gave way to tears. He told his son . . .
My boy, you must find a kingdom big enough for your ambitions. Macedon is too small for you", and bought
the horse for him. Philip purchased the horse and gave it to
Alexander. He named it Bucephalas, which means ox head. He rode the horse over most of his career
and it carried him into many battles. When Bucephalas died of old age at thirty,
Alexander named a city after him. When he was thirteen, Alexander’s education
was taken to a new level when Philip employed the greatest philosopher of the day, Aristotle,
to tutor his son. The daily lessons were held at the temple
of Nymphs at Mieza. Alexander lived there with other royal children
in a privileged version of a boarding school. Some of the teenagers that Alexander associated
with at that time would become his generals in later life. Aristotle provided instruction in religion,
morals, philosophy, art and logic. In appreciation for the education that he
was providing for his son, the king rebuilt Aristotle’s home town of Stageira, which
he had previously destroyed. He also purchased every slave in the town
and freed them. Rising to the Challenge
When he reached the age of sixteen, Alexander was handed a huge responsibility. His father had just declared war on Byzantium
and was about to lead his army to battle. He left the capital city of Macedon under
the control of Alexander. It was a huge display of trust on behalf of
the king, but others soon took advantage. A group of European tribes known as the Thracian
Maedi rose up in rebellion, under the impression that the kingdom was weakened under the teenage
prince. But Alexander was up to the challenge. He sent his army in and the Thracians were
quickly driven out of their territory. He had the area repopulated with Greeks and
renamed it as Alexandropolis. When King Philip returned from battle, he
was extremely impressed with the way that his son had dealt with the Thracian revolt. He gave Alexander his own small army and the
job of stomping out any minor revolts that cropped up throughout the empire. Over the next three years, Alexander joined
his father on a number of military campaigns to dominate Greek states. On one occasion, it was reported that Alexander
saved his father’s life during a campaign against the Greek state of Perinthus. They defeated the cities of Elatea and Amphissa. Then they came up against the united armies
of Athens and Thebes. The armies met during an epic battle near
Chaeronea in Boeotia. Philip took the right wing of the army and
put the left wing under Alexander, with Macedonia’s top generals having to answer to him. The Thebes and Athenians were defeated, giving
Philip control of the majority of the Greek states. He then set about uniting them in a Hellenic
alliance. Family Challenges
Having stamped his dominance on a largely united Greece, Philip set his sights on conquering
Persia. This time he left his son in control of a
hugely expanded empire. When he returned, Philip added an extra wife
to his household. Her name was Cleopatra Eurydice. This marriage put Alexander’s position as
heir to the throne in danger. Cleopatra was a full Macedonian, while Alexander
was only half Macedonian. This meant that, if Cleopatra had a son, this
one would supersede Alexander in the line of succession. During the wedding feast, Attalus, the uncle
of Cleopatra, who was one of Phillip’s top generals, was heard to drunkenly request of
the gods that the king and his new bride should quickly produce a son and heir. Alexander heard the plea and was not happy. He went up to the general and poured a drink
over his head, exclaiming . . . This so irritated Alexander, that throwing
one of the cups at his head, "You villain," said he, "what, am I then a bastard?" Alexander felt abandoned by his father. After the wedding he and his mother left Macedon
and headed for Epirus, where her mother’s brother, King Alexander I resided. Leaving his mother there, he continued on
to Illyria, in the western part of the Balkan peninsula. He was welcomed as a visiting dignitary by
the Illyrian king. Back in Macedon, the King was saddened by
his son’s departure. He sent a messenger to persuade Alexander
to return. The reality was that Philip had never intended
to displace Alexander as heir. However, shortly after Alexander’s return
to Macedon, there was more tension between the two. Philip arranged for Alexander’s younger
brother, Philip Arrhidaeus to marry. Alexander’s trouble-making friends persuaded
him that the king was again trying to cut him off from inheriting the throne. However, when Philip heard of the rumors,
he angrily banished the troublemakers. King of Macedonia
In October of 336 B.C.E, the Macedonian royal court was in Aegae for the wedding of Alexander
I of Epirus and Alexander’s sister Cleopatra of Macedon. Philip was assassinated by one of his bodyguards
as he entered into the town’s theater. The reasons for the assassination are unclear. But the result was very clear. Twenty-year older Alexander was now king of
Macedonia. Alexander was shaken by his father’s murder. He knew that plotters were intent on stealing
the throne out from under him. If he didn’t take decisive action, he too
would be dead. He began by having his cousin, Amyntas IV,
put to death, along with a pair of Macedonian princes from Lycenistis. He also ordered the execution of Attalus,
the uncle of his step-mother Cleopatra. His mother, Olympias, saw danger in the form
of Cleopatra, the woman who had married Philip a few years earlier. She arranged for Cleopatra and the daughter
she’d had with Philip to be killed. She also poisoned others, leaving some of
them mentally and physically disabled for life. Alexander was furious at his mother for poisoning
his half-sister, who he didn’t consider to be a threat to him at all. With the news that the stable, dominant rue
of Philip had been replaced by his twenty-year-old son, a number of states were emboldened to
rise up in revolt. Recently conquered states, including Athens
and Thessalonica attempted to reassert their independence. Despite his advisers urging a diplomatic response,
Alexander was determined to stamp his dominance on the rebellious states. He personally led a force of 3000 soldiers
to sort things out. In many cases, the uncooperative states resistance
evaporated at the sight of Alexander at the head of his army. Those who didn’t were put down swiftly. As he rode through the various states that
his father had united, Alexander was heaped with praise. His swift action had cemented his power and
provided a seamless transition from his father’s rule to his. Having put down a series of revolts, Alexander
wanted to ensure that there were no further uprisings. In his second year as king, he took his army
east and defeated the Thracian people who had rebelled against him four years ago. He also conquered the Triballi tribe. By now Alexander’s Macedonian kingdom had
become so large that, if he went north to put down a rebellion, people in the south
would rise up. Then when he went south, those in the north
would again rebel. What was needed was a show of dominance that
would prevent further uprisings. With the northern states brought under control,
Alexander took his army south. He went directly to Thebes, the only southern
state which had dared to rebel. Alexander was set to make an example of them. The city was completely destroyed. He then created a series of smaller cities
that were populated with people from other areas. The Theban assault finally brought all of
Greece under Alexander’s dominion. He now set out to conquer Asia. To keep the home kingdom under control he
put a general by the name of Antipater in charge with a sizeable army. Into Asia
In 334 BCE, Alexander marched a 40,000 strong army out of Macedonia. He was focused on talking possession of the
entire Persian Empire, which he considered to be a personal gift to him from the Gods. Unlike his father, Alexander was never interested
in achieving diplomatic negotiations. He was all about taking what he wanted by
force of arms. The first resistance that the Macedonian army
found as they swept into Persia was at the Battle of Granicus River. This river was a formidable obstacle that
the Greek army would have to cross. The Persians, under Memnon of Rhodes, positioned
themselves around the river to await the arrival of the enemy. Their strength was a little over half that
of the Greeks. Alexander led his army into a direct frontal
attack using a classic wedge-shaped assault. They drove into the middle of he Persian line. In the melee that followed, it was reported
that Alexander personally killed several Persians. He was almost felled with an axe blow but
was able to recover and save himself. The superior numbers of the Greeks, combined
with this use of the lance to counter the javelin attacks of the Persians, eventually
won the day. The Persians were routed and chased from the
field. Total Persian casualties were around 4,000
with Alexander’s army having lost a tenth of that number. There had been about 18,000 Greek mercenaries
who had fought for the Persians in this battle. They were captured by the Greek army. Alexander considered these men to be traitors
to their country and deserving of no mercy. He had half of them executed and the rest
taken as slaves. Following this victory, Alexander took possession
of Sardis, the provincial capital of the kingdom of Lydia. He then travelled down the Ionian coast. Most towns welcomed him as a conqueror and
he duly declared that were free of their Persian overlords and able to rule themselves as autonomous
states. As he moved down the coast, the Persian navy
was constantly trying to engage Alexander in battle. However, he resisted, preferring to fight
on land. Moving south, Alexander came to Halicarnassus
where he engaged in his first full scale siege operation. The Persian fleet had sailed to the port of
Halicarnassus where it set up its base. Prior to Alexander’s arrival the Queen of
Halicarnassus, Ada of Caria had been driven from the city and replaced by a satrap named
Orontobates. Ada set herself up in the fortress of Alinda. When Alexander rode in, she surrendered the
fort to him. The defenders of the city of Halicarnassus
now set up to defend the city. Still, Alexander’s army managed to break
through the city walls. However, they were driven back by the catapults
from within the city. A renewed assault overcame this peril and
stormed through a second time. Memnon of Rhodes, who was in defense of the
city after having evaded capture at Granicus River, set the city on fire before retreating. The Persian fleet also withdrew. Alexander formally returned the city to Queen
Ada. In return she adopted him as a son, therefore
making sure that the city would pass to him on her death. The Gordian Knot
Control of Halicarnassus and the coastal cities meant that the Persians could no longer dock
their fleet. Continuing on his conquest, Alexander arrived
at the Phrygian capital of Gordium. It was here that, according to Greek legend,
he was taken before a famed oxcart which was tied with an incredibly complicated rope knot,
known as the Gordian knot. It was said that whoever could undo the knot
would become the ruler of Asia. Alexander is said to have examined the knot
closely. Then, having no idea of how to undo it, he
pulled out his sword and cut the rope in half with a single stroke. We don’t know whether the story is true,
but it sure makes a good tale! Continuing south, Alexander’s army encountered,
for the first time, a more formidable army than his own. It was under the leadership of Darius III,
king of the Achaemenid empire of Persia. Despite being outnumbered, Alexander’s tactical
skill and personal bravery in leading from the front won the day. Darius was completely overwhelmed by the loss. He took to his heels, leaving behind his army,
a great treasure and all of his kingdom. Alexander claimed it all. Siege of Tyre
With the absolute dominance of Alexander’s Greek army over the Persians, bordering nations
began to panic. The all-conquering warrior king had developed
an aura of invincibility and many nations simple acceded to him as he entered their
territory. By 332 he had taken Syria and the coastal
Levant. He then set about taking Tyre, which was a
coastal island base sitting about a mile out in the Mediterranean Sea. Conquering the island would be a great challenge
to Alexander, with the combination of the sea and the high walls that surrounded the
island leaving him with few options. For seven months, Alexander blockaded the
island, preventing either entry or exit. He then had his army build a causeway out
of rocks to allow them to get to the city walls. When the city walls were eventually breached,
Alexander was so angry with the extended Tyrian holdout that, according to contemporary historian
Arrian of Nicomedia, he ordered the massacre of up to 8,000 citizens. Following the taking of Tyre, most of the
cities on Alexander’s campaign route surrendered without putting up any resistance. The only city that stood firm as he wound
his way toward Egypt was Gaza. As this city sat atop a hill, it looked as
if Alexander was in for another protracted siege. Yet this was one siege that seemed like an
impossibility. The walls were, according to Alexander’s
engineers, too high and too thick to be penetrated. For, Alexander this was just the sort of challenge
that got his juices flowing. He became even more determined to conquer
the city. He was convinced that destiny would find a
way. The Greek army made three desperate attempts
to breach the walls. Eventually, on the final attempt they made
the breakthrough. But the cost was terrific, with thousands
of men falling to the missiles of the enemy. Alexander himself suffered a serious shoulder
wound. Once the city was taken, severe punishment
was exacted upon the inhabitants, with the men being slaughtered and the women and children
sold into slavery. When the all-conquering Greek army approached
the holy Jewish city of Jerusalem, the Jews threw open the gates and welcomed them into
their midst. It was reported that Alexander was taken into
the Great Temple of Solomon and shown a prophetic text from the Book of Daniel that referred
to him as a mighty king who would conquer the land. Alexander left Jerusalem in peace, and headed
south to lay claim to Egypt. In that land he was welcomed as a liberator. The people proclaimed him to be a son of the
Gods and gave him reverence on the same level as their own pharaoh. He founded the city of Alexandria, which would
become a major trading center in future times. Conquest of Babylon
Leaving Egypt, Alexander travelled back north as he set his sights on taking Babylon, the
Persian capital where King Darius had positioned himself. Alexander marched with 47,000, but Darius
had amassed a massive army, which some historians have put at one million men. The two armies met near the village of Gaugamela. At the forefront of his lines, Darius placed
chariots armed with scythes and fifteen elephants in an attempt to mow through the Greek lines. In response, Alexander placed his light troops
up front to negate the effect of the chariots with missiles directed at their horses. Those chariots that made it to the Greek line
were allowed to pass harmlessly through where they were surrounded and captured. Darius himself was in a scythe armed chariot
but when his charioteer was felled by a javelin he jumped from the chariot, mounted a horse
and fled. Seeing this, many of his men followed suit. Panic ensued and the battle was over. Following the conquest of Babylon, Alexander
moved on to Susa, and then to the Persian city of Persepolis. He then determined to hunt down and kill Darius,
the disgraced Persian king in order to prevent any further reprisals. He finally found Darius, but he had already
been killed. One of his most trusted men, Bessus, had killed
him and now claimed his throne for himself. Alexander now set his sights on tracking down
Bessus, who had fled into central Asia. Alexander explored much of Asia. He found a number of cities, naming each of
them in his own honor, Eventually Bessus was betrayed by his own men and handed over for
execution. On his return to Persia, Alexander was hailed
as the King of Kings. He began to adopt Persian habits, including
dressing in Persian clothing and following Persian customs. This was troubling to many Greeks, including
some of his generals. By now, Alexander had been away from Macedon
for many years. He had left Antipater as the military ruler
of the city and he had effectively maintained the peace. However, Alexander was obstinately requesting
troop reinforcements, which made the defenses of the city weaker. India
Alexander now set his sights on conquering the Indian subcontinent. He sent delegates ahead of him to demand that
the Indian leaders submit to him. Some of the clans acquiesced but others did
not. These clans would be furiously attacked by
Alexander’s army. Complete villages were burned to the ground
and people were killed with impunity. The Greek army met their strongest resistance
at the hands of King Porus of the Punjab region. The Indian forces were defeated in battle,
but Alexander was so impressed with the tactics and bravery of Porus that he offered a co-rulership
to him. While Alexander would control the land, he
would hand the day to day running of the Punjab to Porus. By now Alexander had conquered more territory
than any other ruler in history. But he was still not satisfied. He wanted to advance even deeper into the
Indian subcontinent. But his army did not. They had had enough. The soldiers revolted, refusing to advance
any further. The generals sided with them, with one of
them, General Coenus telling Alexander that the men. . .
longed to again see their parents, their wives, their children, their homeland. Alexander sympathized and decided that it
was time to go home. But he continued to conquer villages and claim
more land on his return route. In order to placate his men, he sent older
and disabled soldiers directly back to Macedonia. But this act backfired. The men thought that they were all going directly
home. When Alexander marched then on further conquests,
there was much anger. The men of his army began to openly criticize
Alexander. They were especially unhappy with his adoption
of Persian customs and the appointing of Persian officers to command them. In an attempt to win favor, Alexander ensured
that Macedonian troops were ruled over by Macedonian officers. He also held a huge banquet for his men to
celebrate the years of victory. After returning to Persia, Alexander established
himself in the great palace of Nebuchadnezzar in Babylon. He planned further campaigns of conquest into
Arabia. But these would never come to pass. Struck Down
Alexander died suddenly on either June 10th or 11th, 332 BCE. The cause of his death is unclear, with there
being two main theories. They both involve the excess use of alcohol. In one account he developing a fever after
a 24-hour drinking binge. In the other, he became sick after drinking
a bowl of unmixed wine. There was also talk of poisoning. The death of the king of kings at the height
of his power was a huge shock to the entire world. People could not believe that such a strong,
dynamic and heroic individual could be struck down without warning. Alexander’s body was placed in a gold sarcophagus. After much disputing he was laid to rest in
Alexandria. Over the centuries many famous leaders came
to pay respects. But his body was not left in peace. It is said that Roman emperor Augustus accidentally
damaged the corpse and Caligula stole Alexander’s breastplate. Such incidents prompted Emperor Septimius
Severis to close the tomb to the public in 200 CE. Where it was taken is unknown. Today, the location of Alexander’s tomb
is one of the great mysteries of history.
