As the last chapter of the US war in
Afghanistan appears to draw to a close, the world watches armed and civilian forces alike
conduct their final evacuations. However in these moments we hear echoes of the past. The history
of the so-called “Graveyard of Empires” is filled with many chapters that tell of yet another major
power that has been forced to withdraw after years of spilled blood and treasure. The most well
known instances have occurred in recent memory. However the pages of Afghan history go back
thousands of years.Today I wanted to take a look at one of these first major military withdrawals
that may just be the most FUBAR one on record; The evacuation of Alexander the Great’s
Macedonian army from Afghanistan. while our gaze will be fixed on this specific
chapter of afghan history you can learn a ton more through our sponsor onedrive they've actually
been one of our longest backers under the previous name the great courses plus this recent
rebranding comes with a massive expansion of their previous content to include even more
educational videos for those who don't know one dream offers subscription-based on-demand videos
covering a huge range of subjects from science history travel art hobbies and more these come
delivered in a variety of packages from your more academic courses to well-produced documentaries
exclusives and more their platform has long been my go-to source for background research while
making my own documentaries and i've learned a ton their episode on the khyber past disaster
in the first afghan war was particularly revealing as i'd never fully grasped the
depth of the military debacle that unfolded during this 1842 withdrawal my mind was
blown when i learned the british lost over 16 000 men in the retreat from kabul alone i
highly suggest you check it out and see how this conflict stacks up against the other military
blunders in afghanistan throughout the eras right now onedrive is offering a free trial
which you can start by clicking the link in the description below or visiting onedrive.com
invicta i highly recommend that you take a look at what they have to offer and dive into the
material that you are most interested in enjoy We can begin by describing the state
of Afghanistan during this era. The first thing to note is that no such country
existed by that name and its borders as we know them are very much a modern construct. Instead,
the area would have been populated by a variety of socio-political groups inhabiting
its life sustaining river-valleys. The earliest human presence dates back
to around 50,000 BC with generations of indigenous farmers and herders slowly forming
into tribes, clans, and minor kingdoms over the years. Throughout the Bronze Age these would be
influenced by the civilizations of Mesopotamia and the Indus River Valley on its flanks.
Trade, colonization, and migration between these and other groups helped accelerate the
region's growth. Some small pockets may have been claimed by external powers but for the most
part it seems that the locals were in charge. This would change around the 700s BC when the
Median tribes of the Iranian plateau united to form an Empire that stretched across the Middle
East. Unfortunately it's true nature is poorly understood by scholars who have a difficult
time identifying the extent of its borders. We know that it drew power from control of
important east-west trade routes which has led some to argue that its reach extended all
the way into the region of modern Afghanistan. The degree to which this control was exerted
over the various local powers is disputed. However it would be the rise of the succeeding
Achaemenid Empire that can more conclusively be identified as the start of foreign control.
According to our records this was done through the formation of several eastern Satrapies.
As you can see, their approximate borders are quite different from our modern ones. Each
of these regions was governed by a Satrap who oversaw the various tribal coalitions
that inhabited his sphere of influence. New cities and fortresses were built to enforce
control while taxes and manpower were extracted. While somewhat remote, these Satrapies were
still important to the Achaemenid Empire. They were host to productive farmland, controlled
key trade routes, produced valuable goods like wine, and supplied excellent forces to the royal
army. Bactria to the north was so important as a base of power that it was often ruled by the
crown prince or heir-to-be, and was known as the land of a thousand gold cities. I could go on
and on about the overlooked history of this region but that will have to wait for another video. For
now I think we’ve sufficiently laid the groundwork for the main subject of the video, the invasion
and eventual withdrawal of the Macedonian army. So how did these western armies end up in the
area of modern Afghanistan in the first place? The short answer is that their invasion was a
part of the eastward thrust of Alexander the Great’s campaigns in the 330s BC. This had all
begun a century earlier when friction between the east and west led to the Ionian revolt and
the eventual outbreak of the Greco-Persian wars. In these matters, Macedon played a relatively
minor role. However when this northern Kingdom rose to power in the 340s BC under Philip the
2nd and came to dominate Greece they would take up the mantle of this conflict as a way to unify
the Hellenic world against a common enemy. When Philip was assassinated however it would be his
young heir Alexander who carried out this vision. Over the next decade he would
lead an army of around 40,000 to gradually break up and consume
the vast Achaemenid Empire. First came Anatolia, then the Levant,
then Egypt, and finally Mesopotamia. Such victories brought glory, territory, and
treasure beyond measure. However for Alexander this was not enough. The King of Kings, Darius,
had escaped his clutches and was fleeing to the remaining eastern satrapies. This could not
stand. He must be defeated once and for all. Thus Alexander dragged his army in
pursuit of the leader without a throne. Along the way he would put down local resistance,
negotiate treaties, establish garrisons, and build new cities to incorporate these lands
into his growing domains. But the satisfaction of victory would be denied him by Bessus, the
Satrap of Bactria, who in the summer of 330 BC had Darius mortally wounded and left by the
side of the road. The diversion simultaneously facilitated his escape. This enraged Alexander
who vowed to have the traitor brought to justice. However retribution would have to wait for
now as more pressing matters were attended to. But finally in the Autumn of 330 BC, Alexander
was once again ready to take up the fight against Bessus who by this point was reported
to be raising an army and proclaiming himself the rightful successor of Darius. The Macedonian
army thus set off from Hyrcania, through Parthia, and to the borders of Areia, a Satrapy that was
roughly equivalent to the modern Afghan province of Herat. Here he established a small force before
continuing on towards the objective in Bactria. However he would be forced to double back to
deal with a revolt led by the Satibarzanes, the Satrap of Areia. Additional revolts in the
region and even a conspiracy against Alexander by fellow Macedonians further delayed the army’s
advance. Brutal tactics were required by the King to put these down and further campaigning saw the
satrapies of Drangiana, Arachosia, and Gandara fall as Alexander now sought to approach Bactria
from the south by crossing the Caucasus mountains. Here’s a modern map of Afghanistan to give
you a sense of where the army marched. Along the way, Alexander sought to secure his
territorial acquisitions and supply lines by establishing new cities, many of which bore
his name. Alexandria in Arachosia for example would eventually translate into Iskanderia
in Arabic and became known as Kandahar. These settlements were often populated with
a mix of natives and thousands of demobilized Greek and Macedonian veterans who acted as
colonists. This fact has always impressed me. The idea that soldiers who had marched literally
thousands of kilometers would suddenly be deposited at the ends of the earth to start a
new life sounds insane. And yet it happened. For some this was a once in a
lifetime opportunity to start anew which they embraced. For many though,
they viewed these postings as punitive. But perhaps the situation was tolerable knowing
that for now Alexander was still by their side campaigning in the area and they might
return home once operations were completed. Along those lines, the main Macedonian force
was now bearing down on Bessus in Bactria. The foe retreated in a scorched earth maneuver
back across the river Oxus. Undeterred, Alexander crossed at a lightning pace and managed to finally
capture his target alive. However this did little to pacify the region. The Macedonians were deep
in foreign territory and seen as vulnerable. The Sogdians and Bactrians rose up in revolt under the
direction of the warlord Spitamenes with Scythian forces further adding fuel to the fire by swarming
across the border to take advantage of the chaos. For nearly two years, Alexander would
be bogged down in bloody fighting filled with skirmishes, ambushes, pitched
battles, and dozens of sieges. In many ways, combat differed from the battles in the
west and Macedonian battle tactics had to evolve to meet the fierce challenges that
faced them in this new theater of the world. One of the most cinematic of these
engagements would be the assault on the great fortress of the Sogdian rock, thought
to be impenetrable by its defenders. However one night, Alexander would send a picked
force of 300 men with ropes and tent pegs to climb its steepest face. 30 died in the ascent
but the remainder managed to claim the heights. The miracle of their accomplishment so shocked
the enemy that they surrendered immediately. This should give you a taste of the intensity of
the conflict that saw tens of thousands perish with Alexander himself even narrowly avoiding
death; once having his leg shot through with an arrow and another time suffering severe illness
from fetid water. But finally, in the Summer of 327 BC, the Macedonians were able to stamp out
the last of the resistance in the regions that make up modern Afghanistan and its surroundings.
Peace, supposedly, had come to the middle east. Victory though now allowed Alexander to prepare
for yet further conquests in his forever wars, this time aimed eastwards into India. Behind
him he would leave an occupation force of some 10-30,000 with numerous convoys of reinforcements
and supplies that were making their way across the lands. Control of these regions was left in
the hands of various commanders and Satraps with orders to deal with any further resistance that
might arise. On paper it would seem that Macedon had conquered Afghanistan but in reality we can
only ever speculate to what degree control was exerted beyond the local urban centers. It's
sure that a great deal of power remained in the hands of local tribal chieftains with whom the
foreign authorities had to negotiate for support. We hear little of what transpired in these lands
during the nearly 2 years that Alexander spent in India. However it seems that discontent among
the stranded western colonists was increasing. When news came of Alexander’s near
death in the siege against the Mallians, some settlers began to abandon their posts.
News of his survival restored some order and the people were perhaps placated by promises of
a brighter future when the King finally completed his campaigns and could see to the internal
issues of the realm. Unfortunately though, this would never come to pass as Alexander the Great
would die shortly thereafter in June of 323 BC. We are told by Diodoras of Sicily that this
was the straw that broke the camel's back. A revolt swept across the Hellenic settlers of the
eastern satrapies. Some simply packed their bags and left. Others banded together to elect their
own general who in turn is reported to have raised a force of some 20,000 infantry and 3,000 cavalry.
We are left to imagine what the situation on the ground was like for the local natives. Surely
it was a dangerous and chaotic time for all. Meanwhile the rest of Alexander’s
empire was on the verge of fracturing. Nominally it was under the control of Perdiccas
who acted as regent while a series of back door deals held the whole thing together with duct
tape. In response to the uprising, he dispatched an army under Peithon to confront the settlers
that had taken up arms. Apparently Perdiccas was so afraid that the commander he sent would merely
strike a deal with the rebels and form his own breakaway satrap that he gave explicit orders for
the Macedonian soldiers to kill all the rebels. According to Diodoras, when the Greeks
who had wanted to abandon their posts in Afghanistan were eventually defeated
they received pledges of assurance that they could return safely to their colonies.
I’ll now let him describe the situation: “When oaths to this effect had been sworn and the
Greeks were interspersed among the Macedonians, Peithon was greatly pleased, seeing that
the affair was progressing according to his intentions. But the Macedonians, remembering
the orders of Perdiccas and having no regard for the oaths that had been sworn, broke faith with
the Greeks. Setting upon them unexpectedly and catching them off their guard, they shot them all
down with javelins and seized their possessions as plunder. Peithon then, cheated of his hopes,
came back with the Macedonians to Perdiccas.” While I know many other attempted withdrawals
from Afghanistan have been quite chaotic, I can’t recall one in which the allies of
the occupying force came in to deliberately massacre its own troops when they attempted to
abandon their posts. At the same time though, I’ll admit there are debates to be had about
whether or not this settler revolt should be considered a true military withdrawal on par
with other planned exits throughout the ages. But semantics aside this is as
FUBAR a situation as I’ve seen it. Yet even still the Hellenic world
would not be done with Afghanistan. In the ensuing years, the rest of the Empire would
descend into chaos as the various successor kings fought for their share of the realm. Eventually
Seleucus gained control of a large portion of the eastern lands, founding the Seleucid Empire
in the process. He would send military forces and new waves of colonists to reassert control
of the regions around modern Afghanistan. However parts of these lands would later be ceded
to the Mauryan Empire following a war in 305 BC. In the following century, the region would
come to be ruled by a Greco-Bactrian Kingdom, the easternmost Hellenistic nation in Antiquity. It's a fascinating piece of history that gets
buried in the history of Afghanistan that is well worth covering. But that will have to wait for
another time. For now we hope you’ve found the story we’ve told so far to be an illuminating
hook into this overlooked part of the past. A huge thanks to the sponsors for funding
the channel and to the researchers, writers, and artists who made this episode
possible. Be sure to like and subscribe for more content and check out these other
related videos. See you in the next one.
